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Physical Development In Infancy And Toddlerhood PowerPoint Presentation

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Description : Check out this medical PowerPoint presentation titled "Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood” by Laura E. Berk.

This medical PowerPoint presentation is about the major changes in body growth over the first two years and brain development during infancy and toddlerhood, current methods of measuring brain functioning, and appropriate stimulation to support the brain’s potential.

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Infants and Children Ninth Edition Chapter 5 Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
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Learning Objectives (1 of 2) 5.1 Describe major changes in body growth over the first two years. 5.2a Describe brain development during infancy and toddlerhood, current methods of measuring brain functioning, and appropriate stimulation to support the brain’s potential. 5.2b Explain how the organization of sleep and wakefulness changes over the first two years. 5.3 Cite evidence that heredity, nutrition, and parental affection all contribute to early physical growth.
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Learning Objectives (2 of 2) 5.4 Discuss infant learning capacities, the conditions under which they occur, and the unique value of each. 5.5 Describe dynamic systems theory of motor development, along with factors that influence motor progress in the first two years. 5.6a Identify changes in hearing and in depth, pattern, object, and intermodal perception during infancy. 5.6b Explain differentiation theory of perceptual development.
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5.1 Body Growth (1 of 3)Changes in Body Size and Muscle–Fat Makeup During the first two years of life, children’s bodies change enormously—faster than at any other time after birth Infants and toddlers grow in spurts, not in steady gains “Baby fat” peaks at about 9 months, helping infants maintain a constant body temperature Muscle tissue increases very slowly during infancy and will not peak until adolescence
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5.1 Body Growth (2 of 3)Changes in Body Proportions Parts of the body grow at different rates, in two growth patterns: Cephalocaudal trend: The head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body By age 2, the lower portion of the body catches up Proximodistal trend: growth proceeds from the center of the body outward
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5.1 Body Growth (3 of 3)Individual and Group Differences Growth norms: height and weight averages for children of the same age Children of the same age differ in rate of physical growth Skeletal age, a measure of bone development, is the best estimate of a child’s physical maturity © Oksana Kuzmina/Shutterstock
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5.2 Brain Development (1 of 14)Development of Neurons Neurons: nerve cells that store and transmit information Synapses: tiny gaps between neurons Neurotransmitters: chemicals released by neurons that send messages across synapses Process of brain growth: Programmed cell death makes space for neural fibers and synapses Stimulation is vital to the survival of neurons Synaptic pruning returns neurons to an uncommitted state to support future development
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5.2 Brain Development (2 of 14)Figure 5.3: Major milestones Formation of synapses is rapid during the first two years, especially in the auditory, visual, and language areas of the cerebral cortex. The prefrontal cortex, responsible for complex thought, undergoes more extended synaptic growth. In each area, overproduction of synapses is followed by synaptic pruning. The prefrontal cortex is among the last regions to attain adult levels of synaptic connections—in mid- to late adolescence. Myelination occurs at a dramatic pace during the first two years, more slowly through childhood, followed by an acceleration at adolescence. The multiple yellow lines indicate that the timing of myelination varies among different brain areas. For example, neural fibers myelinate over a longer period in the language areas, and especially in the prefrontal cortex, than in the auditory and visual areas. (Based on Thompson & Nelson, 2001.)
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5.2 Brain Development (3 of 14)Development of Neurons Glial cells make up about half of the brain’s volume multiply rapidly from fourth month of pregnancy through second year of life Myelination: coating of neural fibers with myelin, an insulating fatty sheath Brain increases in size from 30% of its adult weight at birth to 70% by age 2 Brain development is jointly influenced by genetically programmed events and the child’s experiences
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5.2 Brain Development (4 of 14)Measures of Brain Functioning Measures of changes in electrical activity in the cerebral cortex: Electroencephalogram (EEG): used to examine brain-wave patterns for stability and organization Event-related potentials (ERPs): used to detect general location of brain-wave activity Neuroimaging techniques that provide more precise information: Positron emission tomography (PET) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
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5.2 Brain Development (5 of 14)Measures of Brain Functioning Limitations of measures of brain functioning: PET requires injection of a radioactive substance PET and fMRI require the subject to remain motionless; not suitable for infants and young children NIRS examines only the functioning of the cerebral cortex Observations and self-reports are needed to help clarify relationships between a stimulus and the pattern of brain activity produced
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5.2 Brain Development (6 of 14)Development of the Cerebral Cortex Cerebral cortex: Largest brain structure, containing 20 billion neurons Sensitive to environmental influences for a much longer period than any other part of the brain Frontal lobes: cortical regions with the most extended period of development Prefrontal cortex: Lies in front of areas controlling body movement Responsible for complex thought Undergoes rapid growth during preschool and school years, and again in adolescence
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5.2 Brain Development (7 of 14)Figure 5.6: The left side of the human brain, showing the cerebral cortex The cortex is divided into different lobes, each of which contains a variety of regions with specific functions. Some major regions are labeled here.
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5.2 Brain Development (8 of 14)Development of the Cerebral Cortex Two hemispheres of cerebral cortex differ in their motor, cognitive, and emotional functions Lateralization: specialization of the hemispheres Left hemisphere: in most people, responsible for verbal activities and positive emotion Right hemisphere: handles spatial abilities and negative emotion Handedness: the most obvious reflection of cerebral lateralization in humans Brain plasticity depends on the timing of lateralization
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5.2 Brain Development (9 of 14)Biology and Environment – Brain Plasticity: Insights from Research on Brain Injury In the first few years of life, the brain is highly plastic—able to reorganize areas committed to specific functions Regardless of the hemisphere involved, brain injuries compromise this ability and delay development Children with early brain injuries show deficits in a wide range of complex mental abilities Full impact may not be apparent until higher-order skills are expected to develop Age combines with an array of other factors to affect the extent of the brain’s plasticity and its ability to recover
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5.2 Brain Development (10 of 14)Sensitive Periods in Brain Development Extreme sensory deprivation early in life results in permanent brain damage and loss of functions Examples of deprived early environments: Babies born with cataracts in both eyes Infants adopted after early placement in deprived orphanages Appropriate early stimulation produces experience-expectant brain growth, which depends on ordinary experiences experience-dependent brain growth: additional growth as a result of specific learning experiences
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5.2 Brain Development (11 of 14)Figure 5.7: Relationship of age at adoption to mental test scores at ages 6 and 11 Children transferred from Romanian orphanages to British adoptive homes in the first six months of life attained average scores and fared as well as British early-adopted children, suggesting that they had fully recovered from extreme early deprivation. Romanian children adopted after 6 months of age performed well below average. Although those adopted after age 2 improved between ages 6 and 11, they continued to show serious intellectual deficits. (Adapted from Beckett et al., 2006.)
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5.2 Brain Development (12 of 14)Changing States of Arousal Rapid brain growth means substantial change in sleep and wakefulness patterns between birth and 2 years: Also affected by cultural beliefs and practices and parents’ needs At the end of the first year, infants approximate an adultlike sleep–wake schedule Disturbed sleep and clinginess in toddlerhood come with awareness of the self as separate from others Consistent bedtime routines promote sleep Restful sleep is vital for infants’ learning and memory
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5.2 Brain Development (13 of 14)Figure 5.8: Relationship of bedtime routines to night-wakings In a large sample of mothers in 13 Western and Asian nations, the more consistently they used bedtime routines, the less often their infants, toddlers, and preschoolers woke during the night. Findings were similar for ease of falling asleep and amount of nighttime sleep. (From J. A. Mindell, A. M. Li, A. Sadeh, R. Kwon, & D. Y. T. Goh, 2015, “Bedtime Routines for Young Children: A Dose-Dependent Association with Sleep Outcomes,” Sleep, 38, p. 720. Copyright © 2015 by permission of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies, LLC. Reprinted by permission.)
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5.2 Brain Development (14 of 14)Cultural Influences – Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements Cultural values strongly influence infant sleeping arrangements: Parent–infant cosleeping is the norm for approximately 90% of the world’s population Cosleeping is associated with an emphasis on the interdependent self Nighttime separation in Western cultures is associated with an emphasis on an independent self Bedsharing may increase risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), but advocates note numerous benefits, some of which may actually protect against SIDS
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5.3 Influences on Early Physical Growth (1 of 6)Heredity Heredity contributes considerably to physical growth In children and adolescents who previously experienced negative environments, catch-up growth occurs once conditions improve Genetic makeup also affects body weight
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5.3 Influences on Early Physical Growth (2 of 6)Nutrition Nutrition is especially crucial for development in the first two years Breastfeeding is ideally suited to infants’ needs provides some protection against respiratory and intestinal infections helps increase spacing among siblings has become more common in industrialized nations No difference in psychological development between breastfed and bottle-fed infants
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5.3 Influences on Early Physical Growth (3 of 6)Obesity Evidence indicates a strengthening relationship between rapid weight gain in infancy and later obesity To help reduce the risk of obesity, parents can breastfeed for the first six months avoid giving babies unhealthy foods provide toddlers with opportunities for energetic play Public policies directed at low-income families are a vital child health measure
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5.3 Influences on Early Physical Growth (4 of 6)Malnutrition Widespread in developing countries and war-torn areas with limited food resources Contributes to nearly half of worldwide infant and early childhood deaths and to growth stunting of children under age 5 Marasmus: diet low in all essential nutrients Kwashiorkor: unbalanced diet very low in protein Iron-deficiency anemia: affects up to half of children younger than age 5 worldwide About 16% of U.S. children suffer from food insecurity, which affects physical growth and ability to learn
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5.3 Influences on Early Physical Growth (5 of 6)Emotional Well-Being Weight faltering in infants and young children: Weight is substantially below growth norms, and the child is withdrawn and apathetic Caused by inadequate caloric intake and contributing factors such as disturbed parent–child relationship Affects nearly 10% of U.S. infants and young children Can lead to lasting cognitive and emotional difficulties
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5.3 Influences on Early Physical Growth (6 of 6)Social Issues: Health – Lead Exposure and Children’s Development Longitudinal studies in multiple countries report negative relationships between lead exposure and children’s intelligence test scores: Impaired cognitive functioning was evident at all levels of exposure In some cases, effects persisted into adulthood Cognitive effects were greater for low-SES children: More likely to live in lead-contaminated areas More likely to experience additional risks Interventions are vital to reduce negative impact of lead
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5.4 Learning Capacities (1 of 7)Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning: made possible by infant reflexes requires an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to consistently produce an unconditioned, or reflexive, response (UCR) Neutral stimulus is presented just before or at the same time as the UCS If learning occurs, neutral stimulus alone—now a conditioned stimulus (CS)—will produce a response similar to the reflexive response, now a conditioned response (CR)
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5.4 Learning Capacities (2 of 7)Figure 5.9: The steps of classical conditioning This example shows how a mother classically conditioned her baby to make sucking movements by stroking the baby’s forehead at the beginning of feedings.
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5.4 Learning Capacities (3 of 7)Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, infants operate on the environment: Stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again Plays a vital role in the formation of social relationships Reinforcer: stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response Punishment: removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response
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5.4 Learning Capacities (4 of 7)Habituation Habituation: gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation Recovery: return to a high level of responsiveness when a new stimulus is introduced Novelty preference: Recovery to a new stimulus Assesses recent memory Familiarity preference: Recovery to the familiar stimulus Assesses remote memory
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5.4 Learning Capacities (5 of 7)Figure 5.10: Using habituation to study infant perception and cognition In the habituation phase, infants view a photo of a baby until their looking declines. In the test phase, infants are again shown the baby photo, but this time it appears alongside a photo of a bald-headed man. (a) When the test phase occurs soon after the habituation phase (within minutes, hours, or days, depending on the age of the infants), participants who remember the baby face and distinguish it from the man’s face show a novelty preference; they recover to (spend more time looking at) the new stimulus. (b) When the test phase is delayed for weeks or months, infants who continue to remember the baby face shift to a familiarity preference; they recover to the familiar baby face rather than to the novel man’s face. Photo © Prashant Zi/Fotolia
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5.4 Learning Capacities (6 of 7)Statistical Learning Statistical learning: ability to detect fundamental structure of complex flow of information by extracting frequently occurring patterns fairly automatically Built-in, broadly applied capacity that is functional at birth Operates across sensory modalities, time and space, and species Must be constrained, or young learners would be overwhelmed by number of statistical patterns in their surroundings
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5.4 Learning Capacities (7 of 7)Imitation Imitation: learning by copying the behaviors of others Seen even in newborn primates, including chimpanzees Some investigators believe that newborns imitate much as older children and adults do Others argue that imitative behaviors are automatic responses to stimuli that decline with age Mirror neurons: specialized cells in motor areas of the cerebral cortex in primates that may underlie early imitation
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5.5 Motor Development (1 of 5)The Sequence of Motor Development Gross-motor development: control over actions that help infants get around in the environment Fine-motor development: control over smaller movements, such as reaching and grasping Babies show large individual differences in rate of motor progress Motor skills are interrelated
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5.5 Motor Development (2 of 5)Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems According to dynamic systems theory of motor development, mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action Each new skill is a joint product of central nervous system development body’s movement capacities goals the child has in mind child’s perceptual and cognitive capacities environmental supports for the skill Motor behaviors are not hardwired but are softly assembled from multiple components
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5.5 Motor Development (3 of 5)Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems Microgenetic studies follow development of babies’ skills: Infants reaching “feet first” New walkers carrying objects Cultural variations in infant rearing affect motor development: Delayed sitting and walking in sandbag-reared infants in China Earlier walking among Kipsigis and West Indians Delayed gross-motor milestones in Western cultures © XiXinXing/Shutterstock
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5.5 Motor Development (4 of 5)Fine-Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping Prereaching: newborns’ poorly coordinated swipes toward objects At 3–4 months: purposeful, forward arm movements At 5–6 months: reaching for objects in darkened room Reaching is largely controlled by proprioception Ulnar grasp: clumsy motion in which fingers close against the palm Pincer grasp: well-coordinated grasp using thumb and index finger
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5.5 Motor Development (5 of 5)Figure 5.14: Some milestones of reaching and grasping The average age at which each skill is attained is given. (Ages from Bayley, 1969; Rochat, 1989.) Photos: Newborn and 9 months, © Laura Dwight Photography; 3–4 months and 4–5 months, © Ellen B. Senisi Photography.
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5.6 Perceptual Development (1 of 11)Hearing Perception: active process in which we organize and interpret what we sense Speech perception: Infants’ discrimination of speech sounds activates both auditory and motor areas in the cerebral cortex Around 5 months, infants become sensitive to syllable stress patterns in native language At 7 to 9 months, infants divide speech stream into wordlike units and detect syllable-stress patterns Adults’ style of communicating with infants facilitates analysis of speech structure
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5.6 Perceptual Development (2 of 11)Biology and Environment – “Tuning in” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music Second half of the first year may be a sensitive period in which infants are biologically prepared to “zero in” on socially meaningful perceptual distinctions Perceptual narrowing effect: perceptual sensitivity that becomes increasingly attuned with age to information most often encountered Evident in the perception of faces, musical rhythm, and speech sounds
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5.6 Perceptual Development (3 of 11)Vision Visual development is supported by rapid maturation of the eye and visual centers in the cerebral cortex: At 2 months: focusing on objects as well as adults Around 4 months: adultlike color vision Steady increase in visual acuity until age 4 Emergence of sensitivity to depth cues: Motion at 3–4 weeks Binocular depth cues at about 8 weeks Pictorial depth cues beginning at 3–4 months Independent movement promotes depth perception
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5.6 Perceptual Development (4 of 11)Vision: Pattern Perception Newborns prefer patterned over plain stimuli With age, infants prefer increasingly complex patterns Increasing knowledge of objects and actions supports pattern perception
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5.6 Perceptual Development (5 of 11)Figure 5.18: Subjective boundaries in visual patterns (a) Do you perceive a square in the middle of the figure? By 4 months of age, infants do, too. (b) What does the image, missing two-thirds of its outline, look like to you? By 12 months, infants detect a motorcycle. After habituating to the incomplete motorcycle image, they were shown an intact motorcycle figure paired with a novel form. Twelve-month-olds recovered to (looked longer at) the novel figure, indicating that they recognized the motorcycle pattern on the basis of very little visual information. (Based on Kavšek, 2009; Rose, Jankowski, & Senior, 1997.)
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5.6 Perceptual Development (6 of 11)Vision Newborns show a preference for facelike patterns Around 3 months, babies make fine distinctions among features of different faces Experience with particular faces influences face processing, leading to formation of group biases Early experience promotes perceptual narrowing with respect to gender and racial information in faces Face identification continues to improve throughout childhood
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5.6 Perceptual Development (7 of 11)Figure 5.19: Early face perception Newborns prefer to look at the photo of a face (a) and the simple pattern resembling a face (b) over the upside-down versions. (c) When the complex drawing of a face on the left and the equally complex, scrambled version on the right are moved across newborns’ visual field, they follow the face longer. But if the two stimuli are stationary, infants show no preference for the face until around 2 months of age. (From Cassia, Turati, & Simion, 2004; Johnson, 1999; Mondloch et al., 1999.)
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5.6 Perceptual Development (8 of 11)Object Perception Size constancy: perception of object’s size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image Shape constancy: perception of object’s shape as stable, despite changes in shape projected on retina At 5 months, infants can track object traveling on a curvilinear course at varying speeds Experience boosts older infants’ attention to object’s surface features Perception of object identity is mastered gradually over the first year
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5.6 Perceptual Development (9 of 11)Figure 5.20: Testing newborn infants’ ability to perceive object unity (a) Supported in front of a screen, infants were habituated to a gray rod moving back and forth behind a white rectangular box with ends highlighted by two incomplete circular shapes. The box plus circular shapes also moved back and forth in unison, but out of phase with the rod. Instead of typical continuous motion, the researchers used stroboscopic motion (a rapid series of images of the rod and box along their brief movement paths), which attracts newborns’ attention and adjusts to their weak ability to track moving stimuli. (b) Following habituation, the infants viewed a side-by-side display of a complete rod and a broken rod with a gap corresponding to the location of the box. Each stimulus moved with the same stroboscopic motion as the rod in the habituation phase. Infants recovered to (looked longer at) the broken rod than the complete rod. Their novelty preference suggests that they perceived the rod behind the box in the first display as a single unit. (From E. Valenza & H. Bulf, 2011, “Early Development of Object Unity: Evidence for Perceptual Completion in Newborns,” Developmental Science, 14, p. 801. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, adapted by permission.)
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5.6 Perceptual Development (10 of 11)Intermodal Perception Intermodal stimulation: simultaneous input from more than one modality, or sensory system Intermodal perception: perception of intermodal input as an integrated whole: Light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information Develops rapidly in the first year Facilitates both perception of the physical world and social and language processing Amodal sensory properties: information that overlaps two or more sensory systems
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5.6 Perceptual Development (11 of 11)Understanding Perceptual Development Differentiation theory: Infants actively search for invariant features of the environment in a constantly changing perceptual world Later, infants notice stable relationships among features of a stimulus Affordances: action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certain motor capabilities Cognitive point of view: the belief that babies impose meaning on what they perceive
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