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Basic Principles in The Assessment and Treatment of Fractures in Skeletally Immature Patients PowerPoint Presentation

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This medical PowerPoint presentation is about fractures in skeletally immature patients which require special consideration because their bones are still growing and developing.

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Slide 1-

Basic Principles in the Assessment and Treatmentof Fractures in Skeletally Immature Patients Joshua Klatt, MD Original Author: Steven Frick, MD; March 2004 1st Revision: Steven Frick, MD; August 2006 2nd Revision: Joshua Klatt, MD; December 2010
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Anatomy Unique to Skeletally Immature Bones Anatomy Epiphysis Physis Metaphysis Diaphysis Physis = growth plate
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Anatomy Unique to Skeletally Immature Bones Periosteum Thicker More osteogenic Attached firmly at periphery of physes Bone More porous More ductile
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Periosteum Osteogenic More readily elevated from diaphysis and metaphysis than in adults Often intact on the concave (compression) side of the injury Often helpful as a hinge for reduction Promotes rapid healing Periosteal new bone contributes to remodeling From: The Closed Treatment of Fractures, John Charley
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Physeal Anatomy Gross - secondary centers of ossification Histologic zones Vascular anatomy
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Centers of Ossification 1° ossification center Diaphyseal 2° ossification centers Epiphyseal Occur at different stages of development Usually occurs earlier in girls than boys source: http://training.seer.cancer.gov
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Physeal Anatomy Reserve zone Matrix production Proliferative zone Cellular proliferation Longitudinal growth Hypertrophic zone subdivided into Maturation Degeneration Provisional calcification With permission from M. Ghert, MD McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario Epiphyseal side Metaphyseal side
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Examination of the Injured Child Assess location of deformity or tenderness Carefully assess and document specifically distal neurologic and circulatory function Radiographic evaluation
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Radiographic Evaluation of the Injured Child At least 2 orthogonal views Include joint above and below fracture Understand normal ossification patterns Comparison radiographs rarely needed, but can be useful in some situations
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Special Imaging Evaluate intra-articular involvement Tomograms, CT scan, MRI, arthrogram Identify fracture through nonossified area Arthrogram, MRI Identify occult (or stress) fractures Bone scan, MRI Assess vascularity (controversial) Bone scan, MRI
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Fractures common only in skeletally immature Physeal injuries “weak link” = physis, especially toward end of growth Buckle or Torus Fracture Plastic Deformation Greenstick Fracture
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Buckle or Torus Fracture Compression failure Stable Usually at metaphyseal / diaphyseal junction
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Plastic Deformation The non-reversible deformation after elastic limit surpassed (yield strength) Caused predominantly by slip at microcracks Permanent deformity can result These do not remodel well Forearm, fibula common
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Greenstick Fractures Bending mechanism Failure on tension side Incomplete fracture, plastic deformation on compression side May need to complete fracture to realign
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Salter - Harris Classification Type I Through physis only Type II Through physis & metaphysis Type III Through physis & epiphysis Type IV Through metaphysis, physis & epiphysis Type V Crush injury to entire physis Others added later by subsequent authors Described by Robert B. Salter and W. Robert Harris in 1963.
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Salter Harris Classification General Treatment Principles Type I & Type II Closed reduction & immobilization Exceptions Proximal femur Distal femur
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Salter Harris Classification General Treatment Principles Type III & IV Intra-articular and physeal step-off needs anatomic reduction ORIF, if necessary
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Physeal Fractures Traditionally believed to occur primarily through zone of hypertrophy Recent studies show fractures often traverse more than one zone Growth disturbance/arrest potentially related to Location of fracture within physeal zones Disruption of vascularity Jaramillo et al, Radiology, 2000. Johnson et al, Vet Surg, 2004. Kleinman & Marks, Am J Roentgenol, 1996.
Slide 19-

Fracture Treatment in Children General Principles Children heal faster (factors) Age Mechanism of injury Fracture location Initial displacement Open vs. closed injury Growing bones remodel more readily Need less immobilization time Stiffness of adjacent joints less likely
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Treatment Principles When possible, restore: Length, alignment & rotation Maintain residual angulation as small as possible using closed treatment methods molded casts, cast changes, cast wedging, etc. Displaced intra-articular fractures will not remodel anatomic reduction mandatory
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Treatment PrinciplesClosed Methods Achieve adequate pain control and relaxation Anesthesia Local Regional General Conscious sedation (often combination of drugs) Propofol Ketamine Benzodiazepines Narcotics
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Treatment PrinciplesClosed Methods Vast majority of pediatric fractures treated by closed methods. Exceptions - open fractures, intra-articular fractures, multi-trauma Attempt to restore alignment (do not always rely on remodeling) Gentle reduction of physeal injuries (adequate relaxation, traction)
Slide 23-

Treatment PrinciplesClosed Methods Well molded casts/splints Use 3-point fixation principle Consider immobilization method on day of injury that will last through entire course of treatment Limit splint or cast changes Consider likelihood of post-reduction swelling Cast splitting or splint If fracture is unstable, repeat radiographs at weekly intervals to document maintenance of acceptable position until early bone healing
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Excellent reduction maintained with thin, well-molded cast/splint
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Fiberglass cast applied with proper technique and split/spread is excellent way to safely immobilize limb, maintain reduction and accommodate swelling
Slide 26-

Treatment PrinciplesLoss of Reduction Metaphyseal/diaphyseal fractures can be remanipulated with appropriate anesthesia/analgesia up to 3 weeks after injury In general, do not remanipulate physeal fractures after 5-7 days increased risk of physeal damage
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Treatment PrinciplesOpen Methods Respect and protect physis Adequate visualization resect periosteum, metaphyseal bone, if needed Keep fixation in metaphysis / epiphysis if possible when much growth potential remains Use smooth K-wires if need to cross physis
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ORIF Salter IVDistal Tibia * Note epiphyseal/metaphyseal wires to track postoperative growth
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Complications of Fractures- Bone - Malunion Limb length discrepancy Physeal arrest Nonunion (rare) Crossunion Osteonecrosis
Slide 30-

Complications of Fractures- Soft Tissue - Vascular Injury Especially elbow/knee Neurologic Injury Usually neuropraxia Compartment Syndrome Especially leg/forearm Cast sores/pressure ulcers Cast burns Use care with cast saw
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Complications of Fractures- Cast Syndrome - Patient in spica/body cast Acute gastric distension, vomiting Possibly mechanical obstruction of duodenum by superior mesenteric artery
Slide 32-

Location Specific Pediatric Fracture Complications
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Remodeling of Children’s Fractures Occurs by physeal & periosteal growth changes Greater in younger children Greater if near a rapidly growing physis
Slide 34-

Treatment Principles Immobilization Time In general, physeal injuries heal in half the time it takes for nonphyseal fracture in the same region Healing time dependent on fracture location, displacement Stiffness from immobilization rare, thus err towards more time in cast if in doubt
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Remodeling of Children’s Fractures Not as reliable for: Midshaft angulation Older children Large angulation (>20-30º) Will not remodel for: Rotational deformity Intraarticular deformity
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Remodeling more likely if: 2 years or more growth remaining Fractures near end of bone Angulation in plane of movement of adjacent joint 10 weeks post-injury 1 week post-injury
Slide 37-

Healing Salter I Distal Tibia Fracture
Slide 38-

Growth Arrest Secondary to Physeal Injury Complete cessation of longitudinal growth leads to limb length discrepancy Partial cessation of longitudinal growth angular deformity, if peripheral progressive shortening, if central
Slide 39-

Physes Susceptible to Growth Arrest Large cross sectional area Large growth potential Complex geometric anatomy Distal femur > distal tibia, proximal tibia > distal radius
Slide 40-

Growth Arrest Lines Transverse lines of Park- Harris Lines Occur after fracture/stress Result from temporary slowdown of normal longitudinal growth Thickened osseous plate in metaphysis Should parallel physis
Slide 41-

Growth Arrest Lines Appear 6-12 weeks after fracture Look for them in follow-up radiographs after fracture If parallel physis - no growth disruption If angled or point to physis - suspect bar
Slide 42-

Physeal Bar- Imaging - Scanogram / Orthoroentgenogram Tomograms/CT scans MRI Map bar to determine location and extent
Slide 43-

Physeal Bars- Types - I - peripheral, angular deformity II - central, tented physis, shortening III - combined/complete - shortening
Slide 44-

Physeal Bar - Treatment - Address Angular deformity Limb length discrepancy Assess Growth remaining Amount of physis involved Degree of angular deformity Projected LLD at maturity
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Physeal Bar Resection- Indications - >2 years remaining growth <50% physeal involvement (cross-sectional) Concomitant osteotomy for >15-20º deformity Completion epiphyseodesis and contralateral epiphyseodesis may be more reliable in older child
Slide 46-

Physeal Bar Resection - Techniques Direct visualization Burr/currettes Interpositional material (fat, cranioplast) to prevent reformation Wire markers to document future growth
Slide 47-

Epiphysis or Apophysis? Epiphysis - forces are compressive on physeal plate Apophysis - forces are tensile Histologically distinct Apophysis has less proliferating cartilage and more fibrocollagen to help resist tensile forces
Slide 48-

Apophyseal Injuries Tibial tubercle Medial Epicondyle Often associated with dislocation May be preceded by chronic injury/reparative processes
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Pathologic Fractures Diagnostic workup important Local bone lesion Generalized bone weakness Prognosis dependent on biology of lesion Often need surgery
Slide 50-

Polyostotic Fibrous Dysplasia
Slide 51-

Open FracturesPrinciples IV antibiotics, tetanus prophylaxis Emergent irrigation & debridement Ideally within 6-8 hours of injury Skeletal stabilization Soft tissue coverage
Slide 52-

Chronic Osteomyelitis following Open Femur Fracture Extremely rare in children Serial debridement Followed by simultaneous bone graft and soft tissue coverage Monsivais, J South Orthop Assoc, 1996.
Slide 53-

Lawnmower Injuries Common cause of open fractures & amputations in children Most are A rider or bystander (70%) Under 5 years old (78%) High complication rate Infection Growth arrest Amputation > 50% poor results Loder, JBJS-Am, 2004
Slide 54-

Lawnmower Injuries – often Result in Amputations
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Lawnmower Injuries Education/ Prevention key Children < 14 y Shouldn’t operate Keep out of yard No riders other than mower operator
Slide 56-

Overuse Injuries More common as children and adolescents participate in high level athletics Soccer, dance, baseball, gymnastics Ask about training regimens Mechanical pain Femoral stress fracture Heyworth, Curr Opin Pediatr, 2008.
Slide 57-

Overuse Injuries Diagnosis History/Exam Serial radiographs Bone scan CT/MRI Treatment Abstinence from sport/activity Cast if child is overly active Spica/Fixation for all femoral neck stress fxs Femoral stress fracture Heyworth, Curr Opin Pediatr, 2008.
Slide 58-

Femoral Shaft Stress Fracture in12 year old Male Runner
Slide 59-

Metal Removal in Children Controversial Historically recommended if significant growth remaining Indications evolving Intramedullary devices and plates /screws around hip still removed by many in young patients Kim, Injury 2005. Peterson, J Pediatr Orthop, 2005.
Slide 60-

Summary Pediatric musculoskeletal injuries are relatively common General orthopaedic surgeons can treat majority of fractures Remember pediatric musculoskeletal differences Most fractures heal, regardless of treatment
Slide 61-

Summary Most important factors: Patient age Mechanism of injury Associated injuries Good results – possible with all types treatment Trend for more invasive treatment Must use good clinical judgment and good technique to get good results
Slide 62-

Bibliography Salter R, Harris WR: Injuries Involving the Epiphyseal Plate. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1963;45:587-622. Jaramillo D, Kammen B, Shapiro F: Cartilaginous path of physeal fracture-separations: evaluation with MR imaging--an experimental study with histologic correlation in rabbits. Radiology 2000;215:504-11. Johnson J, Johnson A, Eurell J: Histological appearance of naturally occurring canine physeal fractures. Vet Surg 1994;23:81-6. Kleinman & Marks: A regional approach to the classic metaphyseal lesion in abused infants: the proximal humerus. Am J Roentgenol 1996;167:1399-403. Monsivais J: Effective management of osteomyelitis after grade III open fractures. J South Orthop Assoc 1996;5:30-6.
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Bibliography Loder R: Demographics of tramatic amputations in children. Implications for prevention strategies. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004;86:923-8. Heyworth B & Green D: Lower extremity stress fractures in pediatric and adolescent athletes. Curr Opin Pediatr 2008;20:58-61. Kim W, et al: The removal of forearm plates in children. Injury 2005;36:1427-30 Peterson H: Metallic implant removal in children. J Pediatr Orthop 2005;25:107-15. Wenger D, Pring M & Rand M: Rang’s Children’s Fractures, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005. Rockwood C & Wilkins K: Fractures in Children, 7th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2009. E-mail OTA about Questions/Comments If you would like to volunteer as an author for the Resident Slide Project or recommend updates to any of the following slides, please send an e-mail to ota@aaos.org Return to Pediatrics Index