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Assoc. Prof. Ivan Lambev e-mail: itlambev@mail.bg NONBETA-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS Medical University of Sofia, Faculty of Medicine Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
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30S: Aminoglycosides 30S: Tetracyclines 50S: Chloramphenicol, 50S: Macrolides, Lincosamides, 50S: Linezolide, Streptogramins Rifampicin Polymyxins ANTIBIOTICS – mechanism of action β-lactams, Glycopeptides
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Aminoglycosides have a hexose ring, either streptidine (in streptomycin) or 2-deoxystreptamine (other aminoglycosides), to which various amino sugars are attached by glycosidic linkages. They are water-soluble, stable in solution, and more active at alkaline than at acid pH. Aminoglycosides have polar groups in their molecules and do not absorb in GIT. I. AMINOGLYCOSIDES
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Streptomycin
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Streptomycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic. Its antibacterial activity is due to its binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome and inhibiting of protein synthesis. It has a wide spectrum of anti- bacterial activity but is primarily used to treat mycobacterial infections (i.m.). The main problems are eighth nerve toxi- city (vestibulotoxicity more than deaf- ness), nephrotoxicity, allergic reactions.
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Gentamicin Tobramycin
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Mechanisms of action Inside the cell, aminoglycosides bind to specific 30S-subunit ribosomal proteins and inhibit protein synthesis in at least three ways: (1) interference with the initiation complex of peptide formation; (2) misreading of mRNA, which causes incorporation of incorrect amino acids into the peptide, resulting in a nonfunctional or toxic protein; (3) breakup of polysomes into nonfunctional monosomes.
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Aminoglycosides act as bactericidal on dividing and non-dividing extracelular microorganisms. They are in general active against staphylococci and aerobic Gram-negative organisms including P. aeruginosa and almost all the Enterobacteriaceae.
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Clinical uses Aminoglycosides are mostly used against Gram- negative enteric bacteria, especially when the isolate may be drug-resistant and when there is suspicion of sepsis. They are almost always used in combination with a β-lactam antibiotic to extend coverage to include potential Gram- positive pathogens and to take advantage of the synergism between these two classes of drugs. Penicillin-aminoglycoside combinations also are used to achieve bactericidal activity in the treatment of enterococcal endocarditis and to shorten duration of therapy for viridans streptococcal and staphylococcal endocarditis.
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Amikacin Gentamicin – sol. 80 mg/2 ml (80 mg/8 h i.m.) Kanamycin Neomycin - Bivacin – spray derm. fl 150 ml (neomycin/bacitracin), Nemybacin® - Topocin – pulvis adspersorius (neomycin/bacitracin) Netilmicin Streptomycin Tobramycin. Inhaled Tobramycin (Tobi®) is used to treat mucoviscidosis.
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Spectinomycin is structurally related to aminoglycosides. It lacks amino sugars and glycosidic bonds. Spectinomycin is active against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, but it is used as an alternative treatment for drug-resistant gonorrhea or gonorrhea in penicillin-allergic patients. Strains of gonococci may be resistant to spectinomycin, but there is no cross-resistance with other drugs. Spectinomycin is rapidly absorbed after i.m. injection. A single dose of 40 mg/kg up to a maximum of 2 g is given. There is pain at the injection site. Nephrotoxicity and anemia have been observed rarely.
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Adverse effects All aminoglycosides are ototoxic and nephrotoxic. Ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity are more likely to be encountered when therapy is continued for more than 5 days, at higher doses, in the elderly, and in the setting of renal insufficiency. Concurrent use with loop diuretics (eg, furosemide, ethacrynic acid) or other nephrotoxic antimicrobial agents (vancomycin, amphotericin) can potentiate nephro- toxicity and should be avoided. Ototoxicity can manifest as auditory damage, resulting in tinnitus and high-frequency hearing loss initially, or as vestibular damage, evident by vertigo, ataxia, and loss of balance.
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Streptomycin and gentamicin are the most vestibulotoxic. Nephrotoxicity results in rising serum creatinine levels or reduced creatinine clearance. Neomycin, kanamycin, and amikacin are the most ototoxic agents. Neomycin, tobramycin, and gentamicin are the most nephrotoxic. In very high doses, aminoglycosides can produce a curare-like effect with neuromuscular blockade that results in respiratory paralysis. This paralysis is usually reversible by calcium gluconate (given promptly) or neostigmine. Hypersensitivity occurs infrequently.
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Mechanisms of resistance 1. Production of a transferase enzyme or enzymes inactivates the aminoglycoside by adenylylation, acetylation, or phosphorylation. This is the prin- cipal type of resistance encountered clinically. 2. Impaired entry of aminoglycoside into the cell. This may be genotypic, resulting from mutation or phenotypic, resulting from growth conditions. 3. The receptor protein on the 30S ribosomal subunit may be deleted or altered as a result of a mutation.
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II. TETRACYCLINES
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Tetracyclines enter microorganisms in part by passive diffusion and in part by an energy-dependent process of active transport. Susceptible cells concentrate the drug intracellularly. Once inside the cell, tetracyclines bind reversibly to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, blocking the binding of aminoacyl-tRNA to the acceptor site on the mRNA-ribosome complex This prevents addition of amino acids to the growing peptide. Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis.
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Tetracyclines are active against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including anaerobes, rickettsiae, chlamydiae, mycoplasmas, and L-forms; and against some protozoa, eg, amebas. The antibacterial activities of most tetracyclines are similar except that tetracycline-resistant strains may be susceptible to doxycycline and minocycline, all of which are poor substrates for the efflux pump that mediates resistance. Antimicrobial Activity
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Pharmacokinetics Tetracyclines mainly differ in their absorption after oral administration and their elimination. Absorption after oral administration is approximately 60–70% for tetracycline, oxytetracycline, and methacycline; and 95–100% for doxycycline and minocycline. A portion of an orally administered dose of tetracycline remains in the gut lumen, modifies intestinal flora, and is excreted in the feces. Absorption occurs mainly in the upper small intestine and is impaired by food (except doxycycline and minocycline); by divalent cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+) or Al3+; by dairy products and antacids, which contain multivalent cations; and by alkaline pH.
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Tetracyclines are 40–80% bound by serum proteins. Tetracyclines are distributed widely to tissues and body fluids except for CSF, where concentrations are 10–25% of those in serum. Minocycline reaches very high concentrations in tears and saliva, which makes it useful for eradication of the meningococcal carrier state. Tetracyclines cross the placenta to reach the fetus and are also excreted in milk. As a result of chelation with calcium, tetracyclines are bound to and damage – growing bones and teeth. Carbamazepine, phenytoin, barbiturates, and chronic alcohol ingestion may shorten the half-life of doxycycline by 50% by induction of hepatic enzymes that metabolize the drug.
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Tetracyclines are excreted mainly in bile and urine. Concentrations in bile exceed those in serum tenfold. Some of the drug excreted in bile is reabsorbed from the intestine (enterohepatic circulation) and may contribute to maintenance of serum levels. From 10 to 50% of various tetracyclines is excreted into the urine, mainly by glomerular filtration. Ten to 40% of the drug is excreted in feces. Doxycycline, in contrast to other tetracyclines, is eliminated by nonrenal mechanisms, do not accumulate significantly and require no dosage adjustment in renal failure. Tetracyclines and macrolides have a good intracellular distribution.
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Tetracyclines are classified as: short-acting (chlortetracycline, tetracycline, oxytetracycline) based on plasma t1/2 of 6–8 h; (2) intermediate acting (demeclocycline and methacycline) – t1/2 12 h; (3) long-acting (doxycycline and minocycline) with plasma t1/2 16–18 h. The almost complete absorption and slow excretion of doxycycline and minocycline allow for once-daily dosing.
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Clinical Uses Tetracyclines are the drugs of choice in infections with M. pneumoniae, chlamydiae, rickettsiae, and some spirochetes. They are used in combination regimens to treat gastric and duodenal ulcer disease caused by H. pylori. They may be used in various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial infections, including Vibrio infections. In cholera, tetracycline resistance has appeared during epidemics.
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Tetracyclines remain effective in most chlamydial infections, including sexually transmitted diseases. Tetracyclines are no longer recommended in gonococcal disease because of resistance. A tetracycline usually in combination with an amino- glycoside is indicated for plague, tularemia, and bru- cellosis. Tetracyclines are sometimes used in the treatment of protozoal infections, eg, those due to E. histolytica or P. falciparum. Other uses include treatment of acne, exacerbations of bronchitis, community-acquired pneumonia, Lyme disease, relapsing fever, leptospirosis, and some nontuber- culous mycobacterial infections (eg, M. marinum).
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Lyme disease
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Periostat® (Doxycycline) inhibits collagenase And use in parodontosis (in subantibacterial doses)
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Oxytetracycline in VM
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A newly approved tetracycline analog, tigecycline, is a semisynthetic derivative of minocycline. It is poorly absorbed orally and must be administered intravenously (t1/2 36 h).
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Many tetracycline-resistant strains are susceptible to tigecycline. Its spectrum is very broad. Coagulase-negative staphylococci and S. aureus, including MRS, vancomycin-intermediate, and vancomycin-resistant strains; streptococci, penicillin-susceptible and – resistant; enterococci, including vancomycin-resistant strains; Gram-positive rods; Enterobacteriaceae; multidrug-resistant strains of Acinetobacter spp.; anaerobes, both Gram-positive and Gram-negative; atypical agents, rickettsiae, chlamydia, and legionella; and rapidly growing mycobacteria all are susceptible. Proteus and P. aeruginosa, however, are resistant.
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Adverse Reactions Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are the most common reasons for tetracycline medication. These effects are attributable to direct local irritation of the GIT. Nausea, anorexia, and diarrhea can usually be controlled by administering the drug with food or carboxymethylcellulose, reducing drug dosage, or discontinuing the drug.
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Tetracyclines modify the normal flora, with suppression of susceptible coliform organisms and overgrowth of pseudomonas, proteus, staphylococci, resistant coliforms, clostridia, and candida. This can result in intestinal functional disturbances, anal pruritus, vaginal or oral candidiasis, or enterocolitis with shock and death. Tetracyclines are readily bound to calcium deposited in newly formed bone or teeth in young children. When a tetracycline is given during pregnancy, it can be deposited in the fetal teeth, leading to fluorescence, discoloration, and enamel dysplasia; it can be deposited in bone, where it may cause deformity or growth inhibition. If the drug is given for long periods to children under 8 years of age, similar changes can result.
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Tetracyclines can probably impair hepatic function, especially during pregnancy, in patients with preexisting hepatic insufficiency and when high doses are given intravenously. Hepatic necrosis has been reported with daily doses of ≥ 4 g i.v. Renal tubular acidosis and other renal injury resul- ting in nitrogen retention is a conraindication to the administration of outdated tetracycline preparations. Tetracyclines given with diuretics may produce nitrogen retention. Tetracyclines other than doxycycline may accumulate to toxic levels in patients with impaired kidney function.
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Intravenous injection can lead to venous thrombosis. Intramuscular injection produces painful local irritation and should be avoided. Systemically administered tetracycline, especially demeclocycline, can induce sensitivity to sunlight or ultraviolet light, particularly in fair-skinned persons. Dizziness, vertigo, nausea, and vomiting have been noted particularly with doxycycline and Minocycline at high doses.
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The main mechanisms of resistance to tetracyclines and its analogues are: (1) impaired influx or increased efflux by an active transport protein pump; (2) ribosome protection due to production of proteins that interfere with tetracycline binding to the ribosome; (3) enzymatic inactivation.
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Chloramphenicol Thiamphenicol (with SH_ group instead of N02_ group): less ADRs but less antibacterial activity Florfenicol (analog of thiamphenicol) III. AMPHENICOLS
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CHLORAMPHENICOL Originally isolated from Streptomyces venezuelae, chloramphenicol was the ﬁrst broad-spectrum antibacterial developed (1947). It is now produced synthetically because has a very simple structure. Mechanism of action It is a nonionized, highly lipophilic compound that enters bacterial cells by passive diffusion and binds primarily to the 50S ribosomal subunit. Bacterial protein synthesis is inhibited.
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Chloramphenicol can also bind to the mammalian ribosome (70S) that resembles bacterial ribosomes and interfere with mitochondrial protein synthesis. This is particularly relevant in erythropoietic cells. It is bacteriostatic for most Gram-positive and many Gram-negative aerobic bacteria. Resistance is commonly plasmid-mediated and occurs as a result of enzymatic inactivation by several types of chloramphenicol transacetylase.
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Because of potential toxicity, bacterial resistance, and the availability of many other effective alternatives, chloramphenicol is rarely used. It may be considered for treatment of serious rickettsial infections such as typhus and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. It is an alternative to a beta-lactams for treatment of meningococcal meningitis occurring in patients who have major hypersensitivity reactions to penicillin or bacterial meningitis caused by penicillin-resistant strains of pneumococci.
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Adverse Reactions of Chloramphenicol Adults occasionally develop nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. This is rare in children. Oral or vaginal candidiasis may occur as a result of alteration of normal microbial flora. Chloramphenicol causes a dose-related reversible suppression of red cell production at dosages exceeding 50 mg/kg/d after 1–2 weeks. Aplastic anaemia, a rare consequence (1 in 24 000 to 40 000 courses of therapy) of chloramphenicol administration by any route. It tends to be irreversible and can be fatal.
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Newborn infants lack an effective glucuronic acid conjugation mechanism for the degradation and detoxification of chloramphenicol. Consequently, when infants are given dosages above 50 mg/kg/d, the drug may accumulate, resulting in the gray baby syndrome, with vomiting, flaccidity, hypothermia, gray color, shock, and collapse. To avoid this toxic effect, chloramphenicol should be used with caution in infants and the dosage limited to 50 mg/kg/d or less (during the first week of life) in full-term infants. Chloramphenicol inhibits hepatic microsomal enzymes that metabolize phenytoin and warfarin.
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Gray baby syndrome
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Disadvantage: bone marrow toxicity Advantage: good penetration including in brain and eyes
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In human
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Florfenicol is a structural analog of thiamphenicol which has greater in vitro activity against pathogenic bacteria than chloramphenicol and thiamphenicol. It is also active against enteric bacteria, resistant to chloramphenicol. It can cause dose-related bone marrow suppression but has not been reported to cause fatal aplastic anemia in humans. Currently it is approved for use only in cattle, aquaculture and pigs. In cattle florfenicol is used to treat infectious conjunctivitis and respiratory disease caused by bacteria like Pasteurella and Haemophilus.
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Forfeniciol (Norfenicol®)
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IV. MACROLIDES and KETOLIDES Azithromycin (t1/2 40–68 h, tab. 500 mg) Erythromycin Clarithromycin (antihelicobacter activity) Josamycin (saliva excretion) Midecamycin Oleandomycin (saliva excretion) Roxithromycin Spiramycin (saliva excretion) Rodogyl® (spiramycin/metronidazole) with significant saliva excretion) Ketolides: Telithromycin
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Inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis by macrolides
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Antibacterial spectrum of macrolides ● Active against Gram-positive aerobic bacteria, Mycoplasma and Bartonella henselae (cat scratch disease) with good intracellular distributions. Erythromycin ● Erythromycin is the drug of choice for treatment of Campylobacter jejuni infections. ● It is one of the drugs of choice for treatment of Mycoplasma infections. ● Erythromycin has greater activity against Staphylococcus than lincomycin but not clindamycin. Resistance to erythromycin is usually plasmid encoded.
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Cat scratch disease Bartonella henselae
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Adverse Reactions of Erythromycin Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea accompany oral administration. GI intolerance, which is due to a direct stimulation of gut motility, is the most common reason for discontinuing erythromycin and substituting another antibiotic. Erythromycin can produce acute cholestatic hepatitis (fever, jaundice, impaired liver function), probably as a hypersensitivity reaction. Most patients recover from this, but hepatitis recurs if the drug is readministered. Erythromycin metabolites can inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes and thus increase the serum concen- trations of theophylline, oral anticoagulants, cyclos- porine, methylprednisolone, and digoxin.
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Resistance to erythromycin is usually plasmid- encoded. Three mechanisms have been identified: (1) reduced permeability of the cell membrane or active efflux; (2) production (by Enterobacteriaceae) of esterases that hydrolyze macrolides; (3) modification of the ribosomal binding site (so-called ribosomal protection) by chromosomal mutation or by a macrolide-inducible or constitutive methylase. Cross-resistance is complete between erythromycin and the other macrolides.
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Clarithromycin is derived from erythromycin by addition of a methyl group and has improved acid stability and oral absorption compared with erythromycin. Clarithromycin and erythromycin are virtually identical with respect to antibacterial activity except that clarithromycin is more active against M. avium complex. Clarithromycin also has activity against M. leprae, T. gondii, and H. pylori. Erythromycin-resistant streptococci and staphylococci are also resistant to clarithromycin. The advantages of clarithromycin compared with erythromycin are lower incidence of GI intolerance and less frequent dosing.
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Azithromycin has spectrum of activity and clinical uses virtually identical to those of clarithromycin. Azithromycin is active against M. avium complex and T. gondii. Azithromycin is slightly less active than erythromycin and clarithromycin against staphylo- cocci and streptococci and slightly more active against H. influenzae. Azithromycin is highly active against chlamydia. Its plasma t1/2 is long.
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Telithromycin is active in vitro against S. pyogenes, S. pneumoniae, S. aureus, H. influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, mycoplasmas, Legionella, Chlamydia, H. pylori, N. gonorrhoeae, B. fragilis, and T. gondii. Many macrolide-resistant strains are susceptible to ketolides, for. e.g.: Azitrhromycin penetrates into phagocytes so that it is effective against intracellular tubercle bacilli.
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Fidaxomicin (Dificid®) is a macrolide in a adults ≥18 years of age for treatment of Cl. difficile-associated diarrhrea. It is a tablet taken orally two times a day for 10 days, with or without food. Fidaxomicin inhibitits C. difficile sporulation and of clostridial toxin production.
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Spiramycin ● Spiramycin is less active against bacteria than erythromycin in vitro but more active in vivo because of exceptional ability to concentrate in tissues. ● It It excretes mainly with saliva and is marketed in combination with metronidazole, for treatment of oral infections in dogs and cats. Rodogyl® (spiramycin/metronidazole)
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V. LINCOSAMIDES Clindamycin is a chlorine- substituted derivative of lincomycin, an antibiotic that is elaborated by Streptomyces lincolnensis.
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Clindamycin is indicated for treatment of anaerobic infection caused by bacteroides and other anaerobes that often participate in mixed infections. Clindamycin, sometimes in combination with an aminoglycoside or cephalosporin, is used to treat penetrating wounds of the abdomen and the gut; infections originating in the female genital tract, eg, septic abortion and pelvic abscesses; and aspiration pneumonia. Clindamycin is now recommended rather than erythromycin for prophylaxis of endocarditis in patients with valvular heart disease who are undergoing certain dental procedures. Common adverse effects are diarrhea and colitis due to C. difficile; nausea, skin rashes; impaired liver function and neutropenia.
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VI. STREPTOGRAMINS Quinupristin-dalfopristin is a combination of two streptogramins – quinupristin, a streptogramin B, and dalfopristin, a streptogramin A in a 30:70 ratio. It is rapidly bactericidal for most microorganisms. Synercid® (Quinupristin-dalfopristin) is approved for treatment of infections caused by staphylococci or by vancomycin- resistant strains of E. faecium, but not E. faecalis, which is resistant. The principal toxicities are infusion-related events, such as pain at the infusion site, and an arthralgia-myalgia syndrome.
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VII. GLYCOPEPTIDES Teicoplanin, Bacitracin and Vancomycin interfere with the transport of peptdoglycans through the cytoplasmic membrane and are active against Gram-positive bacteria. Bacitracin is polypeptide mixture, markedly nephrotoxic and used only topically with neomycin (Bivacin®, Topocin®, etc.). Vancomycin and Teicoplanin are glycopeptides and the drug of choice for the oral treatment of bowel inflammations occurring as a complication of antibiotic therapy (pseudomembranous enterocolitis caused by Clostridium difficile). They are not absorbed.
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VIII. POLYMYXINS (B and E) They are mainly toxic antibiotics derived from strains of the soil bacterium Bacillus polymyxa. Colistin (Polymyxin E) alters bacterial membrane permeability by binding to a negatively charged site in the lipopolysaccharide layer. It has a bactericidal action against Gram (-) bacilli. Oral colistin is used to sterilise the bowel before surgery. Inhaled colistin is used to treat chest infections in patients with cystic fibrosis.
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IX. OXAZOLIDINONES Linezolid is a member of the oxazolidinones, a new class of synthetic antimicrobials. It is active against Gram-positive organisms including staphylococci, streptococci, enterococci, Gram-positive anaerobic cocci, and Gram-positive rods such as corynebacteria and L. monocytogenes. It is primarily a bacteriostatic agent except for streptococci, for which it is bactericidal. Linezolid inhibits protein synthesis by preventing formation of the ribosome complex that initiates protein synthesis. Its unique binding site, located on 23S ribosomal RNA of the 50S subunit, results in no cross-resistance with other drug classes.