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Fundamentals of Neurobiology PowerPoint Presentation

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Description : Check out this medical PowerPoint presentation titled "Fundamentals of neurobiology”.

This medical PowerPoint presentation is about neurobiology, the study of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The nervous system is responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information throughout the body.

Here are some fundamental concepts of neurobiology:
Neurons: These are specialized cells that are the building blocks of the nervous system. They receive and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.
Synapse: This is the junction between two neurons, where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
Neurotransmitters: These are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse between neurons.
Central Nervous System (CNS): This is composed of the brain and spinal cord, and it is responsible for processing and integrating sensory information and generating responses.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): This includes all the nerves outside the CNS and is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to the body.
Action potential: This is a brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron and allows for rapid transmission of signals.
Glial cells: These are non-neuronal cells that support and protect neurons, and they play important roles in the development and function of the nervous system.
Plasticity: This refers to the ability of the nervous system to change and adapt in response to experience, learning, and injury.
Sensory systems: These are specialized systems that detect different types of stimuli, such as light, sound, touch, taste, and smell.
Motor systems: These are systems that control movement and are responsible for initiating and executing voluntary and involuntary movements.

Tags : neurobiology, brain, spinal cord, nerves, nervous system, Neurons, Synapse, Neurotransmitters, Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System, Action potentia, Glial cells, Plasticity, Sensory systems, Motor systems, Neurology, Neurology PowerPoint presentation

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Slide 1-

Fundamentals of neurobiology 1
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Introduction to neurobiology 2
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Organisation of the nervous system To understand psychiatric disorders, it is important to understand the normal structure and function of the nervous system The central nervous system (CNS; brain, spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) are composed of two main types of neural cells:1,2 Neurones – basic nerve cells, which transmit messages throughout the nervous system, resulting in functions as diverse as tasting, thinking, and moving Glial cells – provide structural and functional support to neurones Microglia provide a phagocytic role: destroy invading microorganisms, removing cell debris, and promoting tissue repair Macroglia include oligodendrocytes, Schwanm cells, astrocytes, and ependymal cells, which have a variety of supportive functions within the nervous system 3 1. Tortora & Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 12th edition. 2009;2. Martin. Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas. 3rd edition. 2003
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Neurones 4 1. Martin. Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas. 3rd edition. 2003; 2. Kandel et al. Principles of Neural Science. 4th edition. 2000; 3. Tortora & Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 12th edition. 2009; 4. Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary. 2nd edition. 1998 Cell body The cell body contains the cellular machinery that keeps the neurone alive, e.g., the nucleus1 Myelin sheath The myelin sheath is a whitish, fatty layer that wraps around the axons of most neurones and serves to increase the transmission speed of an action potential along the axon1 Axons with a myelin sheath are known as ‘myelinated axons’2 Axon terminals Axon terminals are the regions at the end of an axon that release neurotransmitters1 Dendrites Dendrites receive information from other neurones1 Each neurone typically has more than one dendrite3 Nucleus The nucleus is critical for the neurone’s vitality; it contains the genetic material (genes) needed for cell division/ development, and protein synthesis1,4 Axon Most neurones have a single axon3 An axon transmits the signal generated by the neurone (the action potential) through the nervous system1 Information flow
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Anatomical regions of the brain 5 PNS=peripheral nervous system 1. Kandel et al. Principles of Neural Science. 4th edition. 2000; 2. Tortora & Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 12th edition. 2009 Diencephalon The diencephalon is surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres and includes:1 Thalamus The thalamus is a relay station for all sensory information (except smell) from the PNS to the cerebral cortex Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is a major regulator of internal body functions, such as eating, drinking, maternal behaviour, and sleep cycles; it also plays a role in motivation through initiating and maintaining behaviours a person finds rewarding Cerebrum The cerebrum is known as the ‘seat of intelligence’.2 It is divided into two hemispheres and is made up of three basic regions (see next slide) Cerebellum The cerebellum is a highly folded structure located at the posterior of the brain. It is important in maintaining posture and for coordinating head and eye movements, and is also involved in fine tuning of muscle movements and in learning motor skills1 Spinal cord Midbrain Brainstem Located between the spinal cord and the cerebrum, the brainstem is involved in involuntary functions, such as control of blood pressure and breathing, as well as arousal1 Pons Medulla oblongata
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Cerebrum 6 CNS=central nervous system 1. Price & Wilson. Pathophysiology: Clinical Concepts of Disease Processes. 6th edition. 2003; 2. Tortora & Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 12th edition. 2009; 3. Martin. Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas. 3rd edition. 2003 Sulci Cerebral cortex The cerebral cortex is the main functional unit of the cerebrum, a layer of grey matter (neuronal cell bodies and dendrites) 2–4 mm thick on the outer surface of the brain that is essential for conscious behaviour2 The surface of the cerebral cortex is characterised by raised ridges of tissue called gyri, separated by shallow grooves called sulci1 Gyri Grey matter Grey matter is made up of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals3 White matter White matter consists of glial cells and bundles of myelinated axons that relay messages between the cerebral cortex and other parts of the CNS3 The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres that receive sensory information from, and control the movement of, the opposite side of the body1 The cerebrum is made up of three main regions:1,2 The cerebral cortex The underlying white matter Several subcortical structures, including the basal ganglia Basal ganglia Deep below the cerebral cortex are interconnected nuclei, collectively known as the ‘basal ganglia’2
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Lobes of the brain Deep grooves, called fissures, separate the lobes of the brain:1 Each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes that can be identified on the surface of the brain2,3 A fifth lobe, the insula, lies deep within the brain2 7 1. Price & Wilson. Pathophysiology: Clinical Concepts of Disease Processes. 6th edition. 2003; 2. Tortora & Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 12th edition. 2009; 3. Martin. Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas. 3rd edition. 2003
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Neurosynaptic transmission 8
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Electrical neurotransmission1 Following sufficient excitatory stimulation of the neurone, an action potential is generated at the origin of the axon Neurotransmission 9 1. Adapted from: Kandel et al. Principles of Neural Science. 4th edition. 2000 Chemical neurotransmission1 When the action potential reaches the axon terminal it stimulates the release of chemical neurotransmitters
Slide 10-

The synapse 10 1. Kandel et al. Principles of Neural Science. 4th edition. 2000 Neurones do not physically touch one another; two neurones are separated by a gap, known as a synaptic cleft1 Binding of chemical signals to the postsynaptic neuron can:1 Excite – increasing the generation of action potentials Inhibit – decreasing the generation of action potentials Induce other biochemical processes
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An action potential reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic neurone1 Vesicles fuse with the cell membrane of the presynaptic neurone, causing an influx of calcium ions, which causes the neurone release stored neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft1 The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neurone1 Depending upon the receptor type, when a neurotransmitter binds to the receptor on the postsynaptic neurone it can either act by:2 Rapidly opening or closing an ion channel in the cell membrane, thereby generating or inhibiting an action potential Synthesising a second messenger (e.g., cyclic AMP) Releasing calcium ions (Ca2+) that may interact in a wide variety of biochemical processes Process of chemical neurotransmission 11 AMP=adenosine monophosphate 1. Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th edition. 2008;2. Tortora & Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 12th edition. 2009; 3. Kandel et al. Principles of Neural Science. 4th edition. 2000; 4. Sadock et al. Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. 9th edition. Vol 1–2. 2009 1 2 3 4 5 The neurotransmitters are cleared from the synaptic cleft by:3,4 Reuptake into the presynaptic neurone Removal by astrocytes Diffusion away from the synapse Breakdown by enzymes 1 2 3 4 5
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Neurotransmitters 12
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Neurotransmitters and receptors 13 NMDA=N-methyl-d-aspartate; AMPA=α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid; GABA=gamma-aminobutyric acid 1. Kandel et al. Principles of Neural Science. 4th edition. 2000; 2. Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th edition. 2008; 3. Stahl. Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology. Neuroscientific Basis and Practical Applications. 4th edition. 2013; 4. Wierońska et al. Pharmacol Ther 2016;157:10–27; 5. Grieg et al. Recent Pat CNS Drug Discov 2013;8(2):123–141; 6. Sadek & Stark. Neuropharmacology 2016;106:56–73 Neurotransmitter receptor subtypes1-3
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Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS1 Glutamate is an amino acid that is produced from glutamine1 Glutamate is removed from the synapse by transporters on specialised neurones, metabolised to glutamine, then resupplied to the relevant neurone terminals1 Glutamate 14 CNS=central nervous system 1. Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th edition. 2008; 2. Stahl. Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology. 2013 Cortico–brainstem glutamate projection2Regulates neurotransmitter release from the brainstem Cortico–striatal glutamate pathway2 Thalamo–cortical glutamate pathways2This pathway innervates pyramidal neurones in the cortex Cortico–thalamic glutamate pathways2 Hippocampal–striatal glutamate pathway2 Cortico–cortical glutamate pathways2 These can be direct, or indirect via GABA neurones
Slide 15-

GABA – gamma-aminobutyric acid 15 GABA is found throughout the brain, rather than being localised to specific areas or pathways1 There are three types of GABA receptor, which although varied can typically be separated as follows:1 GABAA – ionotropic chloride channel GABAB – metabotropic G-protein coupled receptor GABAC – ionotropic chloride channel Glycine, the other major inhibitory neurotransmitter, has a more localised distribution, and is mostly found in the spinal cord1 . Note glycine is also a necessary co-factor on NMDA receptors GABA=gamma-aminobutyric acid 1. Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th edition. 2008 H2N O OH Most inhibitory neurones in the brain use GABA or glycine – as many as a third of the inhibitory synapses in the brain use GABA1 The predominant precursor for GABA is glutamate1 GABA is removed from the synapse by specific transporters, and the retrieved GABA is metabolised1
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Serotonin Serotonin (also known as 5-HT) is a neurotransmitter that is found throughout the body.1 High concentrations are found in the CNS, platelets, and certain cells in the gastrointestinal tract1 There are many receptor subtypes for serotonin; the roles of these receptor subtypes are not fully elucidated Serotonergic neurones project widely throughout the brain from their origin in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem2,3 16 CNS=central nervous system 1. Brunton et al. Goodman & Gilman’s the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 11th edition. 2006; 2. Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th edition. 2008; 3. Stahl. Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology. Neuroscientific Basis and Practical Applications. 4th edition. 2013 NH2 HO N H Spinal cord Serotonergic projections to the spinal cord may regulate pain3 Cerebral cortex Within the forebrain, serotonin is thought to regulate sleep and wakefulness2 Raphe nuclei
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Noradrenaline 17 1. Stahl. Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology. Neuroscientific Basis and Practical Applications. 2nd edition. 2000; 2. Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th edition. 2008; 3. Dunn & Swiergiel. Eur J Pharmacol 2008;583:186–193 Cerebellum The noradrenergic projections to the cerebellum is thought to mediate motor movements, especially tremor1 Spinal cord The noradrenergic projection to the brainstem controls blood pressure1 Prefrontal cortex Some noradrenergic projections to the frontal cortex are thought to help regulate mood; others are thought to mediate attention1 The noradrenergic projection to the limbic cortex is thought to mediate emotions, energy, fatigue, and psychomotor agitation/retardation1 Locus coeruleus Noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus project to the back of the brain, and are important in arousal and attention1-3 Noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine) is a neurotransmitter of neurones in the locus coeruleus1,2 The principal function of the locus coeruleus is to prioritise competing incoming stimuli, whether external (e.g., a threat from the environment) or internal (e.g., pain), and to focus attention1 HO NH2 HO OH
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Dopamine 1. Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th edition. 2008; 2. Kandel et al. Principles of Neural Science. 4th edition. 2000; 3. Stahl. Essential Psychopharmacology. 2013 HO NH2 HO Dopamine is involved in movement control, motivation, reward, and reinforcement; many addictive substances work by affecting dopaminergic neurones1-3 Dopamine is produced from the precursor molecule DOPA (dihydroxyphenylalanine) by DOPA decarboxylase1 Dopamine is removed from the synapse by specialised dopamine transporters, and is catabolised by monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)1 Mesocortical pathway Here, dopamine influences perception, cognition, and social behaviour2,3 Nigrostriatal pathway Dopamine has influence over control of fine movements and initiation of movement2,3 Tuberoinfundibular pathway Dopamine normally inhibits the release of prolactin3 Mesolimbic pathway Dopamine is thought to be involved in emotion and memory, pleasurable sensations and reward, the euphoric effects of addictive substances, as well as psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations2,3