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Slide 1-

Foot & Ankle Injuries Kylee Phillips, MD, MBA Clinical Instructor of Emergency Medicine Team Physician University of Michigan Athletics University of Michigan
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Basic Physical Exam Inspection: Swelling, Ecchymosis, Deformity Range of Motion: Dorsiflexion, Plantarflexion Inversion and Eversion Strength Palpation: Medial and Lateral Malleolus Base of 5th Metatarsal Achilles Tendon Midfoot Proximal Fibula Assess neurovascular status
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Normal Ankle Range of Motion http://www.dshs.wa.gov/ 20° 40°
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Normal Ankle Range of Motion http://www.dshs.wa.gov/ Inversion Eversion 20° 30°
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Bones of Lateral Ankle Fibula Tibia Calcaneus Talus Navicular Metatarsals 5th Metatarsal Cuboid Cuneiforms
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Ankle Ligaments Posterior talofibular ligament Calcaneofibular ligament Anterior Talofibular Ligament
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Anterior Drawer Tests integrity of anterior talofibular ligament Emedicine.medscape.com
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Talar Tilt Test Tests integrity of anterior talofibular ligament and calcaneofibular ligament Emedicine.medscape.com
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Ottawa Rules: When to Image Ottawa Ankle Rules: 98% sensitivity for fracture, decrease radiographs Validated in ED and PCP Office Do not apply rules if: Age < 18 yo Pregnancy Multiple painful injuries Compromised sensation http://www.mdcalc.com/ottawa-ankle-rules/
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Case 1 35 year old woman sustained an ankle inversion injury while playing soccer. Able to bear weight after the injury and currently. Pain is localized to the lateral ankle. No bony tenderness Significant swelling of lateral ankle Good end point on anterior drawer and talar tilt test TTP over ATFL Neurovascularly intact
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Diagnosis Ankle Sprain of ATFL
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Staging initially established for different treatment plans, but now regardless of staging all complete the same treatment plan--functional rehabilitation.
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Management of Ankle Sprain Neuromuscular ankle training Increased strength Improved proprioception—balance exercises Air Splint initially (additional lateral stability) Boot only if think more severe diagnosis on differential Crutches for Pain—weight bearing as tolerated with heel to toe walking RICE—Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation Emphasize early range of motion exercises Write ABCs with foot
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Case 2 23 year old male with anterior ankle pain. Was playing intramural touch football yesterday and was pushed back by another player while his foot was planted. Able to bear weight since injury but with pain. Minimal ankle swelling Pain with bearing weight Difficulty rising on toes Limited dorsiflexion secondary to pain Positive Squeeze Test Neurovascularly intact
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Syndesmotic Injury “High Ankle Sprain” of ligaments between tibia and fibula Associated with rotational injury Pushed back on planted foot Posterior-Inferior Tibiofibular Ligament Interosseus Ligament Anterior-Inferior Tibiofibular Ligament
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Squeeze Test Compression of the mid tibia and fibula with reproduction of pain in the ankle Indicates High Ankle Sprain—pain from syndesmotic injury http://step.nl/enkelverzwikking-enkeldistorsie-inversietrauma-enkelbrace-propriocepsis
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Syndesmotic Injury Physical Exam: Pain with External Rotation Test Separates tibia from fibula Tenderness between tibia and fibula Positive Squeeze test Limited dorsiflexion Pain with weight bearing and rising up on their toes Imaging: X-Ray –Possible widening of the space between tibia and fibula
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Treatment of High Ankle Sprain Boot as needed—if severe pain Functional Rehab Strengthening, early ROM Similar to ankle sprain Takes twice as long to recover as compared to ankle sprain Widening with fracture may require Ortho referral for surgical repair
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Do Not Miss… Maisonneuve Fracture: Proximal Fibula Fracture that occurs with: Avulsion fracture of medial malleolus Rupture of deltoid ligament Palpate proximal fibula on all ankle injuries http://www.radiologyassistant.nl/en/p50335f3cb7dc9/ankle-special-fracture-cases.html
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Case 3 65 year old woman who sustained an inversion injury of her ankle while stepping off a curb yesterday. Localizes pain to foot and lateral ankle. Unable to bear weight at the time of the injury, but can now. Significant swelling of lateral ankle TTP over the base of the 5th metatarsal Neurovascularly Intact
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5th Metatarsal Fracture Strayer et al. Fractures of the proximal fifth metatarsal. Am Fam Physician. 1999 May 1;59(9):2516-2522.
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5th Metatarsal Fractures Avulsion Fracture: -No fracture line present in the space between 4th and 5th metatarsal= DIFFERENT from Jones fracture -Treatment: -Weight bearing as tolerated -Hard soled shoe -Rarely, surgical repair If large, displaced intra-articular fragments
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5th Metatarsal Fractures Jones Fracture: The Don’t Miss Fracture See in sprinters, jumpers Watershed Region/Poor blood flow = Poor healing, risk of nonunion Treatment: Referral to Orthopedics or Podiatry Splint in ER and make Non-weight bearing Non-weight bearing with cast for 4-6 weeks followed by 4-6 weeks in walking boot ~ 75% heal with non-operative treatment If athlete, often orthopedic pinning required 30-50% will re-fracture
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Jones Fracture X-Ray http://radiopaedia.org/cases/jones-fracture-4
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Case 4 27 year old male lacrosse player presents after an ankle injury. Occurred yesterday when his foot was caught in a divot in the field and he fell forward. Seen in an Urgent Care yesterday with normal ankle X-Ray. Discharged with walking boot and crutches. Significant swelling and ecchymosis of the midfoot Neurovascularly intact Tenderness over tarsometatarsal joints Pain with weight-bearing and unable to stand on tiptoes K Burroughs, C Reimer , K Fields. Lisfranc injury of the foot. Am Fam Physician 1998;58:121
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Lisfranc Injury Lisfranc Ligament: Base of 2nd Metatarsal Medial Cuneiform -Injury causes separation of the base of the 1st and 2nd metatarsals leading to forefoot instability
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Lisfranc Injury Injury is referred to as a Lisfranc if there is any disruption of the tarsometatarsal joint complex Injury can range from sprain of the Lisfranc ligament to dislocation (due to ligament tear) to fracture Why is this area of the foot prone to injury? Transverse ligaments connect the bases of the four lateral metatarsals No transverse ligament exists between the 1st and 2nd metatarsal bases Minimal support = increased risk of injury
Slide 28-

Imaging X-Ray—Weight-bearing: AP and lateral, +/- oblique -Tell radiology what diagnosis you are concerned about Lisfranc Injury XR Evaluation: Look for widening of space between 1st and 2nd metatarsal Look for fracture at base of 2nd metatarsal XR findings very subtle. If have midfoot pain and negative XR, still possibly a Lisfranc and needs follow up http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00162
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Lisfranc Injury Weight Bearing View: Widening > 2mm between 1st and 2nd metatarsal bases Indicates at least ligamentous injury present http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/
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Lisfranc Injury Fleck Sign: Avulsion off base of 2nd metatarsal. Represents rupture of Lisfranc Ligament http://orthoinfo.aaos.org
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Lisfranc Treatment Clinical Diagnosis: Midfoot pain (Tarsometarsal pain) + Injury + Pain with Weight Bearing = Lisfranc Get weight bearing XR Treatment: Prompt Orthopedic referral and follow up Boot or splint and make non-weight bearing Treatment usually almost always surgical Diagnose early as delayed treatment causes: Chronic pain Foot dysfunction and arthritis
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Case 5 42 year old woman presents with persistent heel pain for the last several month. No injury to the area. Pain is worse in the morning and improves throughout the day. Increased pain with activity. Tenderness at the base of the calcaneus Neurovascularly intact No swelling or ecchymosis
Slide 33-

Plantar Fasciitis =Overuse injury of the plantar fascia Risk Factors: Flat foot (pes planus) High arch (pes cavus) Leg length discrepancy Tightness of Achilles tendon and intrinsic foot muscles Obesity (BMI > 30) Sedentary lifestyle Prolonged standing/walking at work Excessive running Poor arch support shoes Plantar Aponeurosis Lateral Aponeurosis
Slide 34-

Heel Spur? Timestra, Jeffrey. Update on Acute Ankle Sprains. Am Fam Physician. 2012 Jun 15;85(12):1170-1176. Calcaneal Enthesophyte Plantar Fascia Calcaneal spurs are a SIGN of the problem, not the source of the pain!
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Plantar Fasciitis Diagnosis: - History and Physical Treatment: Foot Strengthening Pick up pencils or marbles with toes Calf/Achilles stretching Icing Massage Arch supports Weight loss Avoidance of unsupportive shoes, barefoot walking NSAIDs
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Case 6 37 year old male presents with slow onset of pain in his posterior heel. He is an avid runner and is currently training for a half marathon. Recently transitioned from running shoes to minimalist shoes because he wants to strengthen the muscles in his feet. No swelling or ecchymosis TTP over Achilles tendon No bony TTP Pain increased with dorsiflexion Neurovascularly intact
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Achilles Tendinopathy Overuse injury of the Achilles tendon Thickening and inflammation of the peritendinous tissue Risk Factors: Increased activity (distance, speed, terrain) Reduced recovery time Change in footwear Not as much type of footwear Flat feet Calf tightness
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Achilles Tendinopathy Treatment: Ice Stretching Orthotics Heel lift Achilles Exercises Initially with an extended knee Quick rise, slow drop Repeat with flexed knee Physical Therapy M Childress, A Beutler. Management of Chronic Tendon Injuries. Am Fam Physician. 2013 Apr 1;87(7):486-490.
Slide 39-

Posterior Heel Pain Achilles Rupture: Sudden pain in heel Primarily men 30-40 years old—weekend athletics Cause is forceful dorsiflexion Positive Thompson test Diagnosis: Ultrasound Treatment: Orthopedic Referral. Make NWB and splint. Debate between Plantarflexion Casting or Surgery Thompson Negative Thompson Positive http://www.dgu-online.de/
Slide 40-

Case 7 18 year old male presents with left great toe pain that occurred while playing football this morning. Was pushing off on turf when toe jammed and developed sudden pain. Pain increases with running. Neurovascularly intact Swelling at 1st toe MTP TTP at plantar aspect of 1st toe MTP Weakness of great toe compared to contralateral great toe Increased pain with hyperextension of the 1st MTP
Slide 41-

Turf Toe Sprain of the first metatarsophalangeal joint Caused by forced hyperflexion of the MTP See in football linemen Diagnosis: Clinical Imaging: XR usually normal—use to rule out fracture Treatment: Rest, Ice, NSAIDs, taping, stiff shoe/orthotic, Foot and Ankle follow-up
Slide 42-

Case 8 40 year old female with month of burning pain of foot. Pain radiates into toes at times. Feels like there is a “rock in my shoe,” but there isn’t one. Pain is worse with running and narrow shoes. Plantar TTP between 3rd and 4th metatarsal head Neurovascularly intact
Slide 43-

Morton’s Neuroma Impingement/Compressive Neuropathy of Interdigital Nerves as they divide at metatarsal head Chronic Irritation (compression, tension) of nerves as they transverse metatarsal ligament More common in women (9:1) Pain radiating into toes Parasthesias in 40% Plantar TTP at metatarsal joint Most common between between 3rd and 4th metatarsal head
Slide 44-

Morton’s Neuroma Positive Mulder’s Sign: Squeezing the forefoot from lateral to medial while palpating web space and feel click Imaging: X-Ray normal, Ultrasound Treatment: STOP wearing high heels, wide toe box shoes, NSAIDs, steroid injections Surgical excision if chronic and not improved with conservative treatment
Slide 45-

A Case Outside of the Box…
Slide 46-

Case 9 24 year old female presents with right knee pain. Was playing intramural soccer yesterday when another player grazed the outside of her knee. Pain developed on medial knee after the game. She has been able to bear weight since the injury. No popping or locking of the knee. Inspection: Mild Knee Effusion ROM: Full passive and active extension/flexion Strength: 5/5 knee flexion and extension Neurovascularly intact Palpation: No bony TTP, mild TTP over MCL Special Testing: No laxity with varus or valgus stress, negative Lachman, negative Anterior and Posterior Drawer, negative McMurray and able to squat without pain
Slide 47-

MCL Sprain MCL Sprain—Grade 1 Mild TTP over MCL Force to lateral knee No laxity Normal ROM Mild severity Knee Immobilizer?
Slide 48-

Knee Immobilizer Indications For Use: Instability of Knee Multiple ligaments If this diagnosis is made, should be consulting Ortho Fracture Patella Dislocation Extensor Mechanism Injuries= Ortho Consult Patellar Tendon Quadriceps Tendon Bucket Handle Meniscus Tears Unable to fully extend Extreme Pain Consider if you are missing something Should arrange follow-up prior to discharge +/- ACL Tear BRIEF rest period—then early ROM and pre-op PT
Slide 49-

Knee Immobilizer NOT Indications For Use: Osteoarthritis with Effusion Unsure of knee injury Should be pretty confident why it is being provided “Internal Derangement of Knee” Knee Sprain LCL or MCL
Slide 50-

Knee Immobilizer Reasonable to provide Knee Immobilizer for acute knee rest and to decrease inflammation after injury Problem is the patient wears knee immobilizer continuously until follows up Days to Weeks to Never Following Up Significant decreased ROM, weakness, atrophy and stiffness develop Patient education is key—take it off frequently, ROM, early follow-up Most Orthopedic Surgeons will not operate until effusion resolves and many will start “prehab” PT prior to surgery to improve strength Aids in post-op recovery Improved outcomes
Slide 51-

AAFP Guidelines Complete immobilization of the knee for an extended period is generally contraindicated because of the prolonged stiffness, muscle atrophy, and chronic pain that result Indications for the use of a knee immobilizer include the acute (or presurgical) management of: Quadriceps rupture Patellar tendon rupture Medial collateral ligament rupture Patellar fracture or dislocation Limited number of other acute traumatic knee injuries
Slide 52-

Questions?
Slide 53-

Resources D Judd, D Kim. Foot Fractures Frequently Misdiagnosed as Ankle Sprains. Am Fam Physician. 2002 Sep 1;66(5):785-795. K Burroughs, C Reimer , K Fields. Lisfranc injury of the foot. Am Fam Physician 1998;58:121 Strayer et al. Fractures of the proximal fifth metatarsal. Am Fam Physician. 1999 May 1;59(9):2516-2522.. Timestra, Jeffrey. Update on Acute Ankle Sprains. Am Fam Physician. 2012 Jun 15;85(12):1170-1176. A Tallia, D Cardone. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Injection of the Ankle and Foot. Am Fam Physician. 2003 Oct 1;68(7):1356-1363. M Childress, A Beutler. Management of Chronic Tendon Injuries. Am Fam Physician. 2013 Apr 1;87(7):486-490. D Patel, M Roth, N Kapil. Stress Fractures: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention. Am Fam Physician. 2011 Jan 1;83(1):39-46. M Simpson, T Howard. Tendinopathies of the Foot and Ankle. Am Fam Physician. 2009 Nov 15;80(10):1107-1114. D Judd, D Kim. Foot Fractures Frequently Misdiagnosed as Ankle Sprains. Am Fam Physician. 2002 Sep 1;66(5):785-795. J Goff, R Crawford. Diagnosis and Treatment of Plantar Fasciitis.. Am Fam Physician. 2011 Sep 15;84(6):676-682. P Tu, J Bytomski. Diagnosis of Heel Pain. Am Fam Physician. 2011 Oct 15;84(8):909-916. O’ Connor, Francis et al. ACSM’s Sports Medicine: A Comprehensive Review. Wolters Kluwer: China , 2012. Print. Brunkner, Peter; Khan, Karim; et al. Clinical Sports Medicine. McGraw-Hill: Australia, 2006. Print. Madden, Chris. Netter’s Sports Medicine. Saunders Elsiever. 2010.
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Case 5 40 year old male sustained an inversion injury of his ankle while playing sand volleyball 2 weeks ago. Presents today with persistent pain in lateral lower ankle. Diagnosed with ankle sprain immediately after by his PCP and had normal X-Ray. Had ecchymosis and pain inferior to lateral malleolus No longer has ecchymosis or swelling TTP inferior to lateral malleolus Pain reproduced with resisted eversion
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Peroneal Tendon Injury Peroneus longus: ● Proximal lateral fibula  plantar surface of the proximal 1st metatarsal ● Eversion and plantarflexion Peroneus brevis: ● Lateral fibula  base of the 5th metatarsal ● Eversion
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Peroneal Tendon Injury Examination: TTP of peroneal tendons as they pass posterior to the lateral malleolus Pain with resisted eversion Pain with passive inversion Tendon snapping with resisted eversion and dorsiflexion Imaging: Ultrasound Management: Ice, rest, and NSAIDS Walking boot for 2-4 weeks to allow for rest Tendon dislocation/subluxation may require Ortho operative management
Slide 59-

Case 6 40 year old female with month of burning pain of foot. Pain radiates into toes at times. Feels like there is a “rock in my shoe,” but there isn’t one. Pain is worse with running and narrow shoes. Plantar TTP between 3rd and 4th metatarsal head Neurovascularly intact
Slide 60-

Morton’s Neuroma Impingement/Compressive Neuropathy of Interdigital Nerves as they divide at metatarsal head Chronic Irritation (compression, tension) of nerves as they transverse metatarsal ligament More common in women (9:1) Pain radiating into toes Parasthesias in 40% Plantar TTP at metatarsal joint Most common between between 3rd and 4th metatarsal head
Slide 61-

Morton’s Neuroma Positive Mulder’s Sign: Squeezing the forefoot from lateral to medial while palpating web space and feel click Imaging: X-Ray normal, Ultrasound Treatment: STOP wearing high heels, wide toe box shoes, NSAIDs, steroid injections Surgical excision if chronic and not improved with conservative treatment
Slide 62-

Case 10 24 year old female runner training for a marathon with one month of heel pain. Initially, only had pain with running, now having pain with walking. Pain increased with weight bearing Tenderness over the medial-lateral calcaneus Pain with calcaneal squeeze testing www.medscape.com
Slide 63-

Imaging Start with Radiographs—Lateral and Heel X-ray If X-Rays are normal and clinical suspicion remains high, consider CT or MRI N Dobson, E Dobson, P Shromoff. Imaging Imaging Strategies for Diagnosing Calcaneal and Cuboid Stress Fractures. Clinics in Podiatric Medicine and Surgery, 2008-04-01, Volume 25 (2), 183-201.
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Management of Calcaneal Stress Fracture Reduction in activity to pain free activity If pain with walking, may need to be non-weight-bearing until pain free with walking Slow progression back into activity, again reducing impact if pain returns Addition of heel cushions or orthotics if needed Assessment of calcium and vitamin D status Full healing usually takes 2-3 months
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Posterior Heel Pain Haglund’s Syndrome (Retrocalcaneal Bursitis) Insidious onset of pain in posterior heel Due to swelling of bursa between Achilles and calcaneus Better when barefoot or in open-backed shoes Associated with Haglund’s deformity Normal variant – posterolateral calcaneal prominence Treatment: RICE, NSAID, heel cord stretching, PT Subcutaneous Calcaneal Bursa Achilles Tendon Retrocalcaneal bursa T Tu, J Bytomski. Diagnosis of Heel Pain. Am Fam Physician. 2011 Oct 15;84(8):909-916.
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Case 11 35 year old woman sustained an inversion injury of her ankle while playing basketball. Came down on another players foot after jumping for a rebound Diagnosed with ankle sprain Persistent pain in the anterior ankle after 6 weeks Intermittent ankle swelling Feels ankle catching and locking
Slide 67-

Talar Osteochondral Defect Ankle sprains with associated compressive forces (landing from a jump) Often with inversion injury, but many after no trauma Most commonly in the superomedial dome Symptoms/Exam: Swelling, pain, catching and locking TTP over Talus and not over ligament Imaging: X-Ray: May see on Mortis View CT MRI Treatment: Non-Op: Short Leg Cast and NWB x 6 weeks Operative: Arthroscopy D Judd, D Kim. Foot Fractures Frequently Misdiagnosed as Ankle Sprains. Am Fam Physician. 2002 Sep 1;66(5):785-795.
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Talar Osteochondral Defect Emedicine.medscape.com
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Case 17yo ballet dancer presenting with increasing pain in her forefoot with dancing. No pain with walking. Pain improved some with a week of rest, but returned when she started dancing again. Focal tenderness over the 2nd metatarsal
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Metatarsal Stress Fractures Risk Factors High arches Repetitive impact activity (running, marching, dancing) Avoidance of painful weight-bearing Non-weight-bearing with crutches if pain with walking Slow return to normal activity when pain free with walking and to palpation over the stress injury May need orthoses to help prevent future injury
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DDx of Heel Pain Calcaneal stress fracture/traumatic fracture Plantar fasciitis Fat pad atrophy Achilles tendinopathy Achilles Bursitis (Haglund deformity)
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DDx Ankle Pain Ankle Sprain Syndesmotic injury (High Ankle Sprain) 5th metatarsal fracture Navicular fracture Peroneal Tendon Injury Fractures Fibula Tibia Talus Calcaneus Achilles tendon injury
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Posterior Heel Pain Sever’s disease—Calcaneal Apophysitis =Painful inflammation of calcaneal growth plate #1 cause of posterior heel pain in kids 9-14 years old Increased pain with growth spurt—changing biomechanics Risks: Microtrauma with running (soccer), decreased Achilles and Hamstring flexibility Positive Sever’s Test: Heel pain aggravated by standing on tip toes Improved with rest, heel lifts, stretching, ice, NSAIDs, out grow Tenderness over normal appearing physis = apophysitis Wheelessonline.com
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Plantar Fascia Injection Risks: Painful procedure High Complications Problem returns if cause not addressed Plantar fascia rupture Fat pad atrophy Skin hypopigmentation A Tallia, D Cardone. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Injection of the Ankle and Foot. Am Fam Physician. 2003 Oct 1;68(7):1356-1363.