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Description : Check out this medical presentation on Skin Injury, which is titled "Wound Coverage Techniques for the Injured Extremity", to know about multi-disciplinary approach to evaluation and treatment of Soft Tissue injuries.

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Slide 1-

Wound Coverage Techniques for the Injured Extremity Gil Ortega, MD, MPH
Slide 2-

Objectives Review multi-disciplinary approach to evaluation and treatment of Soft Tissue injuries Review up to date methods of coverage Open Primary vs. Secondary Skin grafting Flap Review Non-surgical and Surgical Options for Soft-Tissue injuries Review current literature concerning Soft-Tissue injuries and Wound Coverage Techniques
Slide 3-

Initial Assessment History Time and mechanism of injury Functional demands of the patient Patient variables Age Diabetes Malnutrition Obesity Infection Smoker Medications Underlying physiology Occupation
Slide 4-

Initial Assessment Physical exam Severity of Injury Energy of Injury Morphology of associated fracture Bone loss Blood supply Location
Slide 5-

Initial Treatment Management of soft tissue injury requires: Early aggressive debridement in OR Early intravenous antibiotics Skeletal stabilization Timely soft tissue coverage Tetanus prophylaxis Prophylactic antibiotics: 1st generation cephalosporin Clindamycin if penicillin allergy Penicillin for clostridia-prone wounds
Slide 6-

Wide Variety of Soft Tissue Injuries; Similar Initial Treatment Options Injury: Realignment/splint Neurovascular exam Cover wound with sterile dressing Radiographs
Slide 7-

Wound Colonization Initial colonization of traumatic wound Increases with time Need to debride necrotic muscle, dead space, and poorly vascularized tissue including bony injuries
Slide 8-

Wound Excision- Debridement Conversion of traumatic wound to a “surgical” wound with debridement of all devitalized tissue – skin, fascia, and bone Unless gross contamination, evidence unclear as to best time for operative debridement as to whether 0-6 hours, 6-12 hours or > 12 hours to decrease risk of infection, however, patient must receive IV antibiotics promptly Tripuraneni K et al. The Effect of Time Delay to Surgical Debridement of Open Tibia Shaft Fractures on Infection Rate. ORTHOPEDICS 2008; 31:1195.
Slide 9-

Initial Management After Debridement Restore vascularity Stabilize skeletal injury Splinting External Fixation Early Total Orthopaedic Care vs. Damage Control Orthopaedics Repair nerves Repair musculotendinous units PLAN reconstruction When patient is best physiologically stable When best team is available for reconstruction(s)
Slide 10-

Reconstructive Ladder Methods Types Direct closure Skin Grafts Local and Regional Flaps Distant Pedicle Flaps Free Flaps Primary Secondary STSG FTSG Random Axial Random Axial (See next slide)
Slide 11-

Reconstructive Ladder Free flaps Cutaneous Fascial/ Fasciocutaneous Muscle/ Musculocutaneous Osteocutananeous
Slide 12-

Direct Closure Direct closure is simplest and often most effective means of achieving viable coverage May need to “recruit” more skin to achieve a tension free closure
Slide 13-

Direct closure Decreasing wound tension can be accomplished by: Relaxing skin incisions “Pie crusting” of the skin under tension (perpendicular to the direction of tension) Application of negative pressure wound therapy
Slide 14-

Negative pressure therapy Advantages: Increased neovascularization Increased granulation tissue formation, Decreased bacterial count Decreased seroma formation Wound contracture Disadvantages: Device Cost Can’t see wound when sponge is in place
Slide 15-

Negative pressure therapy Components: Apply a polyvinyl sponge to wound Impermeable membrane sealing wound from the external environment Low or intermittent negative pressure vacuum suction [i.e. KCI Vacuum Assisted Closure, or V.A.C.® Therapy System]
Slide 16-

Negative pressure therapy Routine use of VAC with open tibia fractures is safe According to Bhattacharyya et al, in Gustilo Type IIIB tibia fractures, vacuum-assisted closure therapy does not allow delay of soft-tissue coverage past 7 days without a concomitant elevation in infection rates Bhattacharyya et al. Routine use of wound vacuum-assisted closure does not allow coverage delay for open tibia fractures. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008 Apr;121(4):1263-6.
Slide 17-

Skin Grafting Split thickness (STSG) Full thickness (FTSG)
Slide 18-

STSG Advantages May be meshed Large area Require less revascularization Temporary coverage Disadvantages Poor cosmesis Limited durability Contracts over time Donor site problems Pain Infection
Slide 19-

FTSG Advantages No wound contracture Increased sensibility Increased durability Better cosmesis Primary closure of donor site Disadvantages Longer to revascularize Cannot mesh Recipient site must have rich vasculature
Slide 20-

Wound Preparation for Grafts Vascularity Hemostasis Debride all necrotic tissue Optimize co-morbid conditions
Slide 21-

Donor Site Selection STSG 0.015 inches thick (thickness #15 scalpel) Lateral buttock Ant. and Lat. Thigh Lower abdomen Avoid medial thigh and forearm FTSG Depends on area to be covered Large grafts-lower abdomen and groin Small- medial brachium and volar wrist crease Plantar skin from instep
Slide 22-

Skin Harvest for STSG Sterile preparation Lubricate Set depth (0.012 inch most common) Traction with tongue blade May use mineral oil for skin
Slide 23-

Skin Harvest for FTSG Use template Cut out ellipse Defat after harvest Apply and compress with moist bolster
Slide 24-

Donor Site Care Open Semi-open Semi-occlusive Occlusive Biologic
Slide 25-

Indications for Flap Coverage Skin graft cannot be used Exposed cartilage, tendon (without paratenon), bone, open joints, metal implants Flap coverage is preferable Secondary reconstruction anticipated, flexor joint surfaces, exposed nerves and vessels, durablitiy required, multiple tissues required, dead space present
Slide 26-

Classification of Soft Tissue Flaps Random Axial Local Advancement Rotation Distant Direct Tubed Free
Slide 27-

Classification of Soft Tissue Flaps Direct cutaneous Musculocutaneous Septocutaneous
Slide 28-

Direct Cutaneous Flaps Groin flap- superficial circumflex iliac artery Deltopectoral flap-2nd and 3rd perforating br. Of int thoracic artery
Slide 29-

Musculocutaneous Flaps Mathes Classification Type I- one vascular pedicle Gastrocnemius Tensor fascia Lata Type I: Tensor Fascia Lata
Slide 30-

Musculocutaneous Flaps Mathes Classification Type II- one dominant vascular pedicle close to insertion with additional smaller pedicles entering along the course of the muscle Brachioradialis Gracilis Soleus Type II: gracilis
Slide 31-

Musculocutaneous Flaps Mathes Classification Type III - two dominant vascular pedicles Rectus abdominis Gluteus maximus Type III: Gluteus Maximus
Slide 32-

Musculocutaneous Flaps Mathes Classification Type IV- multiple pedicles of similar size Generally of less use in reconstruction than single or double pedicled muscles Type IV: Sartorius
Slide 33-

Musculocutaneous Flaps Mathes Classification Type V- one dominant pedicle and several smaller segmental vascular pedicles Latissimus Dorsi Pectoralis major Type V: Latissimus Dorsi
Slide 34-

Septocutaneous Flaps Cormack, et. al Type A- flap dependent on multiple fasciocutaneous perforators
Slide 35-

Septocutaneous Flaps Cormack, et. al Type B-based on single fasciocutaneous perforator of moderate size consistent in presence and location Parascapular flap- circumflex scapular artery Saphenous artery flap Lateral thigh flap- 3rd profunda perforator
Slide 36-

Septocutaneous Flaps Cormack, et. al Type C- supported by multiple perforators which pass from a deep artery thru a fascial septum Radial forearm flap Posterior Interosseous flap
Slide 37-

Septocutaneous Flaps Cormack, et. al Type D -type C septocutaneous flap removed in continuity with adjacent muscle and bone to create a osteo- myo-fasciocutaneous flap Free fibula osteocutaneous flap
Slide 38-

Principles of Free Tissue Transfer Pre-operative Assessment Physical Examination Vascular Status Arteriogram Alternative methods Choice of donor site Length and width necessary to fill defect Vascular pedicle length Innervated or composite with bone
Slide 39-

Principles of Free Tissue Transfer Surgical Considerations Team approach Comfortable setting Anesthesia- regional block/ epidural Temperature Volume replacement Careful surgical technique PREVENT SPASM
Slide 40-

Principles of Free Tissue Transfer Post-operative Management ICU for monitoring Maintain body temperature Fluid balance Good pain relief Monitoring flap- temperature, doppler, photoplethysmography
Slide 41-

Soft Tissue Coverage for the Tibia Conventional teaching Proximal 1/3 Tibial defect- Gastrocnemius rotational flap Middle 1/3 Tibial defect - Soleus rotational flap Distal 1/3 Tibial defect - free flap Large defect- Latissimus Dorsi Smaller defect- radial forearm, Sural artery Fasciocutaneous flap
Slide 42-

Medial Gastrocnemius for Proximal 1/3 Tibia
Slide 43-

Soft Tissue Coverage for the Middle 1/3 Tibia Soleus flap Narrower muscle belly compared to gastrocs and a somewhat less robust vascular supply Less tolerant of tension compared to gastrocs flap so harvesting and mobilization of muscle belly can be technically demanding
Slide 44-

Soft Tissue Coverage for the Distal 1/3 Tibia
Slide 45-

Soft Tissue Coverage for the Tibia When treating limbs with severe underlying bone injury (ASIF/ OTA type C), use of a free flap for soft tissue coverage was less likely to have a wound complication than use of a rotational flap, regardless of location. Zone of injury may be larger than anticipated and may include rotated muscle More muscle tissue available in free flaps Pollak, A et.al. Short-Term Wound Complications After Application of Flaps for Coverage of Traumatic Soft-Tissue Defects About the Tibia. JBJS 82-A: 1681-1691, 2000.
Slide 46-

Soft Tissue Coverage for the Tibia Timing: best results obtained with early soft tissue coverage (< 72 hours) for Type III-B open tibial fractures Definitive bony and soft tissue surgery may not always be possible within 72 hours because of concomitant injuries or delayed referral Therefore, according to Steiert AE and Karanas et al., both groups have showed high success rates with delayed (> 72 hours) with meticulous microsurgical treatment planning and vessel anastomoses outside of zone of injury Steiert et al. have shown that the use of Damage Control Orthopaedics may enable surgeon to treat injury definitely beyond 72 hour window with similar results to that of definitive surgeries within 72 hours Steiert AE et al. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2009 May;62(5):675-83. Karanas et al. Microsurgery. 2008;28(8):632-4 Cierny G. et al. Clin Orthop 178: 54-63, 1983 Fischer et al. JBJS 73-A: 1316-1322, 1991 Godina M. Plat Reconstr Surg 78: 285-293, 1986
Slide 47-

Soft Tissue Coverage of the Ankle/ Foot Open wounds in this area remain a challenge Donor site options Medial plantar flap for reconstruction of the heel Abductor hallucis flap Flexor digitorum brevis
Slide 48-

Soft Tissue Coverage of the Ankle/ Foot
Slide 49-

Soft Tissue Coverage of the Ankle/ Foot Increasingly popular method among reconstructive surgeons is use of a distally based sural artery flap Supplied by most distal perforating artery of peroneal artery which is located approximately 5-7 cm above tip of lateral malleolus According to Ríos-Luna et al, the sural fasciocutaneous offers technical advantages such as easy dissection with preservation of more important vascular structures in limb, complete coverage of soft tissue defect without need of microsurgical anastomosis Ríos-Luna et al. Versatility of the sural fasciocutaneous flap in coverage defects of the lower limb. Injury. 2007 Jul;38(7):824-31.
Slide 50-

Soft Tissue Coverage of the Elbow Skin graft for wounds that are well-vascularized without injury to neurovascular or osseous structures.
Slide 51-

Soft Tissue Coverage of the Elbow Flaps Infection or dead space-use muscle flap Extensive soft tissue avulsion- parascapular flap Functional restoration of elbow flexion - latissimus dorsi
Slide 52-

Considerations for Flap Coverage of the Elbow Regional FCU- Ulnar recurrent artery Brachioradialis- radial recurrent artery Intermediate Radial artery fascio-cutaneous flap Posterior Interosseous flap Distant pedicle Latissimus dorsi - Thoracodorsal artery Serratus anterior- Thoracodorsal artery Free tissue transfer Latissimus dorsi Rectus Abdominis - deep inferior epigastric Parascapular - circumflex scapular artery
Slide 53-

Flap Coverage of the Elbow: Example of Latissimus Dorsi Local Transfer Flap
Slide 54-

Soft tissue coverage of the Hand Sheet STSG for dorsum of hand FTSG for volar aspect of hand
Slide 55-

Soft Tissue Coverage of the Hand Common flaps Cross finger flap Thenar flap Radial forearm flap Posterior interosseous flap Groin flap
Slide 56-

Dorsal Soft tissue avulsion injury Coverage with radial forearm flap Flaps for Hand Reconstruction
Slide 57-

Limb Salvage Vs. Amputation Lower Extremity Assessment Project (LEAP) study provides evidence for outcomes of limb salvage Largest study with followup up to 7 years Compares functional outcome of patients with limb salvage vs. amputation Bosse et al. A prospective evaluation of the clinical utility of the lower extremity injury severity scores. JBJS Am. 83: 3-14, 2001.
Slide 58-

LEAP Study Major Conclusions Limb threatening injuries severely impair patient outcome When comparing limb salvage vs. amputation, the patient outcome is generally the same at 1-5 years Lack of plantar sensation does not predict poor outcome after limb salvage
Slide 59-

LEAP Study Patients with Poor Outcomes Rehospitalization of major complication Lower level of education Non white Poverty Smokers Poor social support Involved in social legal compensation
Slide 60-

Summary Appropriate debridement with first debridement being most important Appropriate antibiotic regime Appropriate bony stability Early coverage to prevent dessication of critical structures and decrease risks of wound infection Choose appropriate coverage method Defect requirements Patient needs Surgeon factors Protect limb to appropriate healing
Slide 61-

References Classical Cierny G. et al. Primary versus delayed soft tissue coverage for severe open tibial fractures. A comparison of results. Clin Orthop 178: 54-63, 1983. Fischer et al. The timing of flap coverage, bone-grafting, and intramedullary nailing in patients who have a fracture of the tibial shaft with extensive soft-tissue injury. JBJS 73-A: 1316-1322, 1991. Godina M. Early microsurgical reconstruction of complex trauma of the extremities. Plat Reconstr Surg 78: 285-293, 1986. Serafin, Donald M.D.: Atlas of Microsurgical Composite Tissue Transplantation. W.B. Saunders Company, 1996. Webster, Martyn H. C. MBChB, FRCS (Glasg.), Soutar, David S. MBChB, FRCS (ED.): Practical Guild to Free Tissue Transfer. Butterworth & Co, 1986.
Slide 62-

References Classical McCraw, John B. M.D., F.A.C.S., Arnold, Phillip G. M.D., F.A.C.S., et al: McCraw and Arnold’s Atlas of Muscle and Musculocutaneous Flaps, Hampton Press Publishing Co.,1986. Cormack, George C. MA, MB, ChB, FRCS(ED), Lamberty, B. George H. MA, MB, BChir, FRCS: The Arterial Anatomy of Skin Flaps. Churchill Livingstone, 1986. Moy, Owen J. M.D., et al: Soft Tissue Management of Complex Upper Extremity Wounds. W.B. Saunders Company, 13-2: 163-318, May 1997.
Slide 63-

References Technique/Outcomes/Recent articles Tripuraneni K et al. The Effect of Time Delay to Surgical Debridement of Open Tibia Shaft Fractures on Infection Rate. ORTHOPEDICS 2008; 31:1195. Bhattacharyya et al. Routine use of wound vacuum-assisted closure does not allow coverage delay for open tibia fractures. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008 Apr;121(4):1263-6. Pollak, et.al. Short-Term Wound Complications After Application of Flaps for Coverage of Traumatic Soft-Tissue Defects About the Tibia. JBJS 82-A: 1681-1691, 2000. Steiert AE et al. Delayed flap coverage of open extremity fractures after previous vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) therapy - worse or worth? J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2009 May;62(5):675-83. Karanas et al. The timing of microsurgical reconstruction in lower extremity trauma. Microsurgery. 2008;28(8):632-4 Bosse et al. A prospective evaluation of the clinical utility of the lower extremity injury severity scores. JBJS Am. 83: 3-14, 2001.
Slide 64-

References Technique/Outcomes/Recent articles Reuss BL et al. Effect of delayed treatment on open tibial shaft fractures. Am J Orthop. 2007 Apr;36(4):215-20. Gopal S et al. Fix and flap: the radical orthopaedic and plastic treatment of severe open fractures of the tibia. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2000 Sep;82(7):959-66. Yazar S et al. One-stage reconstruction of composite bone and soft-tissue defects in traumatic lower extremities. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004 Nov;114(6):1457-66. Yazar S et al. Outcome comparison between free muscle and free fasciocutaneous flaps for reconstruction of distal third and ankle traumatic open tibial fractures. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006 Jun;117(7):2468-75; discussion 2476-7.
Slide 65-

Thank You Gil Ortega, MD, MPH Sonoran Orthopaedic Trauma Surgeons Site Director, Phoenix Orthopaedic Residency Program Scottsdale Healthcare Trauma Center Scottsdale, AZ Return to General/Principles Index E-mail OTA about Questions/Comments